Primordial germ cells (PGCs), undifferentiated embryonic germ cells, are the only cells that have the ability to become gametes and to reacquire totipotency upon fertilization. It is generally understood that the development of PGCs proceeds through the expression of germ cell-specific transcription factors and characteristic epigenomic changes. However, little is known about the properties of PGCs at the metabolite and protein levels, which are directly responsible for the control of cell function. Here, we report the distinct energy metabolism of PGCs compared with that of embryonic stem cells. Specifically, we observed remarkably enhanced oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and decreased glycolysis in embryonic day 13.5 (E13.5) PGCs, a pattern that was gradually established during PGC differentiation. We also demonstrate that glycolysis and OXPHOS are important for the control of PGC reprogramming and specification of pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) into PGCs in culture. Our findings about the unique metabolic property of PGCs provide insights into our understanding of the importance of distinct facets of energy metabolism for switching PGC and PSC status.primordial germ cell | metabolome | proteome | glycolysis | oxidative phosphorylation I n mouse, germ cells first develop as primordial germ cells (PGCs) from a subset of cells in late epiblasts consisting of primed pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) that differentiate from naïve PSCs, designated primitive ectoderm or early epiblast, at around embryonic day 7.25 (E7.25) in the extraembryonic mesoderm (1). Several cytokines (2) and transcription factors (3-5) have critical roles in the emergence of PGCs. Following their initial appearance, PGCs migrate and colonize the genital ridges at ∼E10.5, subsequently exhibiting sexual differentiation at ∼E11.5. After their initial development, PGCs undergo characteristic epigenetic reprogramming, including the global reduction of histone H3 lysine 9 dimethylation (H3K9me2) and DNA methylation (6-8). As a result of the dynamic changes in gene regulation and epigenetic states that occur in the course of PGC differentiation, PGCs have developmental potential distinct from that of PSCs. Notably, PGCs show dormant totipotency, although PGCs are monopotential cells for the generation of gametes. Nonetheless, PGCs and PSCs remain closely related: both cell types share the expression of several pluripotency-associated transcription factors (9-12), and PGCs are easily reprogrammed into naïve PSCs, designated embryonic germ cells (EGCs), in culture (13,14). Therefore, the intrinsic mechanisms that control the distinct developmental potential of these two cell types are of great interest.Recent studies have focused primarily on the transcriptome and epigenome to explain the functional difference between PSCs and PGCs. However, the differences in metabolites and proteins in these cells, which may be closely linked to their distinct developmental potential, have not been examined. Recently, exhaustive analyses of metabolites, especially re...

In mouse embryos, primordial germ cells (PGCs) are fate-determined from epiblast cells. Signaling pathways involved in PGC formation have been identified, but their epigenetic mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we show that the histone methyltransferase SETDB1 is an epigenetic regulator of PGC fate determination. Setdb1-deficient embryos exhibit drastic reduction of nascent PGCs. Dppa2, Otx2 and Utf1 are de-repressed whereas mesoderm development-related genes, including BMP4 signaling-related genes, are downregulated by Setdb1 knockdown during PGC-like cell (PGCLC) induction. In addition, binding of SETDB1 is observed at the flanking regions of Dppa2, Otx2 and Utf1 in cell aggregates containing PGCLCs, and trimethylation of lysine 9 of histone H3 is reduced by Setdb1 knockdown at those regions. Furthermore, DPPA2, OTX2 and UTF1 binding is increased in genes encoding BMP4 signaling-related proteins, including SMAD1. Finally, overexpression of Dppa2, Otx2 and Utf1 in cell aggregates containing PGCLCs results in the repression of BMP4 signalingrelated genes and PGC determinant genes. We propose that the localization of SETDB1 to Dppa2, Otx2 and Utf1, and subsequent repression of their expression, are crucial for PGC determination by ensuring BMP4 signaling.

Spontaneous testicular teratoma develops from primordial germ cells (PGCs) in embryos; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying teratoma formation are not fully understood. Mutation of the dead-end 1 (Dnd1) gene, which encodes an RNA-binding protein, drastically enhances teratoma formation in the 129/Sv mouse strain. To elucidate the mechanism of Dnd1 mutation-induced teratoma formation, we focused on histone H3 lysine 27 (H3K27) trimethylation (me3), and found that the levels of H3K27me3 and its responsible methyltransferase, enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (Ezh2), were decreased in the teratoma-forming cells of Dnd1 mutant embryos. We also showed that Dnd1 suppressed miR-26a-mediated inhibition of Ezh2 expression, and that Dnd1 deficiency resulted in decreased H3K27me3 of a cell-cycle regulator gene, Ccnd1. In addition, Ezh2 expression or Ccnd1 deficiency repressed the reprogramming of PGCs into pluripotent stem cells, which mimicked the conversion of embryonic germ cells into teratoma-forming cells. These results revealed an epigenetic molecular linkage between Dnd1 and the suppression of testicular teratoma formation.

Sperm proteins mediating sperm-egg interaction should be exhibited on the sperm surface, or exposed or released when sperm approach an egg. In ascidians (protochordates), sperm undergo a sperm reaction, characterized by enhanced sperm motility and mitochondrial swelling and shedding on contact with the vitelline coat (VC) or by treatment with Ca(2+) ionophore. Here, proteomic analysis was conducted on sperm exudates and sperm surface proteins using ionomycin-induced sperm reaction and cell-impermeable labeling in Ciona intestinalis type A (C. robusta). In the exudate from sperm treated with ionomycin, membrane proteins including a possible VC receptor CiUrabin were abundant, indicating the release of membranous compartments during sperm reaction. Among the surface proteins XP_009859314.1 (uncharacterized protein exhibiting homology to HrTTSP-1) was most abundant before the sperm reaction, but XP_004227079.1 (unknown Ig superfamily protein) appears to be most abundantly exposed by the sperm reaction. Moreover, proteins containing a notable set of domains, astacin-like metalloprotease domain and thrombospondin type 1 repeat(s), were found in this fraction. Possible roles in fertilization as well as localizations and behaviors of these proteins are discussed.

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are fate determined from pluripotent epiblasts. Signaling pathways and transcriptional regulators involved in PGC formation have been identified, but detailed molecular mechanisms of PGC fate determination remains poorly understood. Using RNAi screening, we identified histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) as a regulator of PGC formation. Hdac3 deficiency resulted in decreased nascent PGCs in vitro and in vivo, and somatic developmental genes were de-repressed by Hdac3 knockdown during PGC induction. We also demonstrated BLIMP1-dependent enrichment of HDAC3 and deacetylation of H3 and H4 histones in the somatic developmental genes in epiblast-like cells. In addition, the HDAC3/BLIMP1-targeted somatic gene products were enriched in PGC determinant genes; overexpression of these gene products in PGC-like cells in culture resulted in repression of PGC determinant genes. We propose that selective recruitment of HDAC3 to somatic genes by BLIMP1 and subsequent repression of these somatic genes are crucial for PGC fate determination.