Endosomal trafficking plays an integral role in various eukaryotic cell activities and serves as a basis for higher-order functions in multicellular organisms. An understanding of the importance of endosomal trafficking in plants is rapidly developing, but its molecular mechanism is mostly unknown. Several key regulators of endosomal trafficking, including RAB5, which regulates diverse endocytic events in animal cells, are highly conserved. However, the identification of lineage-specific regulators in eukaryotes indicates that endosomal trafficking is diversified according to distinct body plans and lifestyles. In addition to orthologues of metazoan RAB5, land plants possess a unique RAB5 molecule, which is one of the most prominent features of plant RAB GTPase organization. Plants have also evolved a unique repertoire of SNAREs, the most distinctive of which are diverse VAMP7-related longins, including plant-unique VAMP72 derivatives. Here, we demonstrate that a plant-unique RAB5 protein, ARA6, acts in an endosomal trafficking pathway in Arabidopsis thaliana. ARA6 modulates the assembly of a distinct SNARE complex from conventional RAB5, and has a functional role in the salinity stress response. Our results indicate that plants possess a unique endosomal trafficking network and provide the first indication of a functional link between a specific RAB and a specific SNARE complex in plants.

In yeast and mammals, the AAA ATPase Vps4p/SKD1 (for Vacuolar protein sorting 4/SUPPRESSOR OF K þ TRANSPORT GROWTH DEFECT1) is required for the endosomal sorting of secretory and endocytic cargo. We identified a VPS4/SKD1 homolog in Arabidopsis thaliana, which localizes to the cytoplasm and to multivesicular endosomes. In addition, green fluorescent protein-SKD1 colocalizes on multivesicular bodies with fluorescent fusion protein endosomal Rab GTPases, such as ARA6/RabF1, RHA1/RabF2a, and ARA7/RabF2b, and with the endocytic marker FM4-64. The expression of SKD1 E232Q , an ATPase-deficient version of SKD1, induces alterations in the endosomal system of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Bright Yellow 2 cells and ultimately leads to cell death. The inducible expression of SKD1 E232Q in Arabidopsis resulted in enlarged endosomes with a reduced number of internal vesicles. In a yeast two-hybrid screen using Arabidopsis SKD1 as bait, we isolated a putative homolog of mammalian LYST-INTERACTING PROTEIN5 (LIP5)/SKD1 BINDING PROTEIN1 and yeast Vta1p (for Vps twenty associated 1 protein). Arabidopsis LIP5 acts as a positive regulator of SKD1 by increasing fourfold to fivefold its in vitro ATPase activity. We isolated a knockout homozygous Arabidopsis mutant line with a T-DNA insertion in LIP5. lip5 plants are viable and show no phenotypic alterations under normal growth conditions, suggesting that basal SKD1 ATPase activity is sufficient for plant development and growth.

Dynamically polarized membrane proteins define different cell boundaries and have an important role in intercellular communication-a vital feature of multicellular development. Efflux carriers for the signalling molecule auxin from the PIN family 1 are landmarks of cell polarity in plants and have a crucial involvement in auxin distribution-dependent development including embryo patterning, organogenesis and tropisms 2-7 . Polar PIN localization determines the direction of intercellular auxin flow 8 , yet the mechanisms generating PIN polarity remain unclear. Here we identify an endocytosisdependent mechanism of PIN polarity generation and analyse its developmental implications. Realtime PIN tracking showed that after synthesis, PINs are initially delivered to the plasma membrane in a non-polar manner and their polarity is established by subsequent endocytic recycling. Interference with PIN endocytosis either by auxin or by manipulation of the Arabidopsis Rab5 GTPase pathway prevents PIN polarization. Failure of PIN polarization transiently alters asymmetric auxin distribution during embryogenesis and increases the local auxin response in apical embryo regions. This results in ectopic expression of auxin pathway-associated root-forming master regulators in embryonic leaves and promotes homeotic transformation of leaves to roots. Our results indicate a two-step mechanism for the generation of PIN polar localization and the essential role of endocytosis in this process. It also highlights the link between endocytosis-dependent polarity of individual cells and auxin distribution-dependent cell fate establishment for multicellular patterning.The plant signalling molecule auxin acts as a versatile trigger in many aspects of plant development and mediates different cellular responses on the basis of its graded distribution between cells. Establishment and maintenance of these auxin gradients requires local auxin biosynthesis 9,10 and directional cell-to-cell transport that depends on PIN auxin transporters 11 . PINs have a polar plasma membrane localization that determines the direction of intercellular auxin flow 8 . Thus, the mechanisms underlying PIN polarity belong to centralCorrespondence and requests for materials should be addressed to P.D. (E-mail: P.B.Dhonukshe@uu.nl) or J.F. (E-mail: jiri.friml@psb.ugent.be). * These authors contributed equally to this work.Supplementary Information is linked to the online version of the paper at www.nature.com/nature.Reprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints. are important components of polar PIN localization. However, it remains unresolved how PIN polarity is initially generated. In mammalian epithelia, segregation of membrane proteins into apical and basolateral plasma membrane domains is mainly achieved by polar exocytosis of newly synthesized proteins, or by non-polar exocytosis followed by endocytosis and polarized recycling 19 . Here we demonstrate an endocytosis-dependent mechanism for PIN polarity generation, and its import...

The SNARE complex is a key regulator of vesicular traffic, executing membrane fusion between transport vesicles or organelles and target membranes. A functional SNARE complex consists of four coiled-coil helical bundles, three of which are supplied by Q-SNAREs and another from an R-SNARE. Arabidopsis thaliana VAMP727 is an R-SNARE, with homologs only in seed plants. We have found that VAMP727 colocalizes with SYP22/ VAM3, a Q-SNARE, on a subpopulation of prevacuolar compartments/endosomes closely associated with the vacuolar membrane. Genetic and biochemical analyses, including examination of a synergistic interaction of vamp727 and syp22 mutations, histological examination of protein localization, and coimmunoprecipitation from Arabidopsis lysates indicate that VAMP727 forms a complex with SYP22, VTI11, and SYP51 and that this complex plays a crucial role in vacuolar transport, seed maturation, and vacuole biogenesis. We suggest that the VAMP727 complex mediates the membrane fusion between the prevacuolar compartment and the vacuole and that this process has evolved as an essential step for seed development.

Rab5, a subfamily of Rab GTPases, regulates a variety of endosomal functions as a molecular switch. Arabidopsis thaliana has two different types of Rab5-member GTPases: conventional type, ARA7 and RHA1, and a plant-specific type, ARA6. We found that only one guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), named VPS9a, can activate all Rab5 members to GTP-bound forms in vitro in spite of their diverged structures. In the vps9a-1 mutant, whose GEF activity is completely lost, embryogenesis was arrested at the torpedo stage. Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-ARA7 and ARA6-GFP were diffused in cytosol like GDP-fixed mutants of Rab5 in vps9a-1, indicating that both types of GTPase are regulated by VPS9a. In the leaky vps9a-2 mutant, elongation of the primary root was severely affected. Overexpression of the GTP-fixed form of ARA7 suppressed the vps9a-2 mutation, but overexpression of ARA6 had no apparent effects. These results indicate that the two types of plant Rab5 members are functionally differentiated, even though they are regulated by the same activator, VPS9a.

The multifunctional vacuole is the largest organelle in plant cells, and many proteins are transported to and stored in this organelle; thus, the vacuole has great physiological and agronomical importance. However, the molecular mechanism and regulation of plant vacuolar traffic remain largely unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that multiple vacuolar trafficking pathways operate in plants. RAB5 and RAB7 are evolutionarily conserved subfamilies of Rab GTPase, whose animal and yeast counterparts regulate vacuolar/endosomal trafficking in a sequential manner. Functional analyses of a putative activating complex for RAB7 indicated that this complex is responsible for maturation from RAB5- to RAB7-positive endosomes in plant cells. Moreover, these machinery components are recruited to a more complex trafficking network. Mutations in RAB5 and RAB7 conferred counteracting effects on the vti11 mutant. Furthermore, impairment of RAB5- and RAB7-dependent pathways differentially affected the transport of distinctive cargos. These results indicate that plants have developed a complex vacuolar transport system distinct from that of nonplant systems by assigning evolutionarily conserved machinery to unique trafficking pathways. These pathways provide a fundamental basis for plant development at the cellular and higher-ordered levels.

In all eukaryotic cells, a membrane-trafficking system connects the post-Golgi organelles, such as the trans-Golgi network (TGN), endosomes, vacuoles, and the plasma membrane. This complex network plays critical roles in several higher-order functions in multicellular organisms. The TGN, one of the important organelles for protein transport in the post-Golgi network, functions as a sorting station, where cargo proteins are directed to the appropriate post-Golgi compartments. Unlike its roles in animal and yeast cells, the TGN has also been reported to function like early endosomal compartments in plant cells. However, the physiological roles of the TGN functions in plants are not understood. Here, we report a study of the SYP4 group (SYP41, SYP42, and SYP43), which represents the plant orthologs of the Tlg2/syntaxin16 Qa-SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) that localizes on the TGN in yeast and animal cells. The SYP4 group regulates the secretory and vacuolar transport pathways in the post-Golgi network and maintains the morphology of the Golgi apparatus and TGN. Consistent with a secretory role, SYP4 proteins are required for extracellular resistance responses to a fungal pathogen. We also reveal a plant cell-specific higher-order role of the SYP4 group in the protection of chloroplasts from salicylic acid-dependent biotic stress.Arabidopsis | membrane traffic | membrane fusion I n eukaryotic cells, membrane fusion is an essential process in protein secretion and endocytosis (1, 2). Selective membrane fusion occurs with the concerted functions of several molecules, including SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor attachment protein receptors), Rab GTPases, tethering factors, and Sec1p/Munc18 (SM) proteins. SNAREs are membrane-anchored proteins that contain α-helical heptad repeats and a characteristic central amino acid within the SNARE motif. The SNARE complex comprises four SNAREs, including three with a central glutamine residue in SNARE motif (Q-SNAREs: Qa, Qb, and Qc) and one with a central arginine (R-SNARE) in SNARE motif. The Q-SNAREs reside on the target membrane, and the R-SNARE resides on the transport vesicle. This complex first forms a bridge between the target organelle membrane and the vesicle, and then compresses to bring the two membranes close enough to mediate specific membrane fusion. After fusion is complete, the SNARE complex is dissociated by a NSF (N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor), and the SNAREs are recycled. To execute the correct membrane fusion, SNAREs must be localized on the membrane of specific organelles or transport vesicles. QaSNAREs also serve as organelle markers (3-5), by virtue of their specific localization on the membrane of target organelles.The TGN was first defined as a special organelle on the transside of the Golgi stack that is responsible for protein sorting to the plasma membrane or lysosomes (6). The TGN contains multiple sorting domains and functions as the compartment of cargo sorting. In addition, the TGN ...

Cytokinesis represents the final stage of eukaryotic cell division during which the cytoplasm becomes partitioned between daughter cells. The process differs to some extent between animal and plant cells, but proteins of the syntaxin family mediate membrane fusion in the plane of cell division in diverse organisms. How syntaxin localization is kept in check remains elusive. Here, we report that localization of the Arabidopsis KNOLLE syntaxin in the plane of cell division is maintained by sterol-dependent endocytosis involving a clathrin-and DYNAMIN-RELATED PROTEIN1A-dependent mechanism. On genetic or pharmacological interference with endocytosis, KNOLLE mislocalizes to lateral plasma membranes after cell-plate fusion. Fluorescence-loss-in-photo-bleaching and fluorescence-recovery-after-photo-bleaching experiments reveal lateral diffusion of GFP-KNOLLE from the plane of division to lateral membranes. In an endocytosis-defective sterol biosynthesis mutant displaying lateral KNOLLE diffusion, KNOLLE secretory trafficking remains unaffected. Thus, restriction of lateral diffusion by endocytosis may serve to maintain specificity of syntaxin localization during late cytokinesis.