Tolerance to bitter foods and its potentiation by repetitive exposure are commonly experienced and potentially underlie the consumption of bitter foods, but it remains unknown whether permissive and adaptive responses are general phenomena for bitter-tasting substances or specific to certain substances, and they have not been rigorously studied in mice. Here, we investigated the effects of prolonged exposure to a bitter compound on both recognition and rejection behaviors to the same compound in mice. Paired measurements of rejection (RjT) and apparent recognition (aRcT) thresholds were conducted using brief-access two-bottle choice tests before and after taste aversion conditioning, respectively. First, RjT was much higher than aRcT for the bitter amino acids L-tryptophan and L-isoleucine, which mice taste daily in their food, indicating strong acceptance of those familiar stimuli within the concentration range between RjT and aRcT. Next, we tested five other structurally dissimilar bitter compounds, to which mice were naive at the beginning of experiments: denatonium benzoate, quinine-HCl, caffeine, salicin, and epigallocatechin gallate. RjT was moderately higher than aRcT for all the compounds tested, indicating the presence of innate acceptance to these various, unfamiliar bitter stimuli in mice. Lastly, a 3-week forced exposure increased RjT for all the bitter compounds except salicin, demonstrating that mice acquire tolerance to a broad array of bitter compounds after long-term exposure to them. Although the underlying mechanisms remain to be determined, our studies provide behavioral evidence of innate and acquired tolerance to various bitter stimuli in mice, suggesting its generality among bitterants.
The controlled formation and the regular arrangement of polymer chains have been performed by novel solid-state polycondensation including the ionic-to-covalent bond transformation in the ionic molecular crystals. The combination of the tetra-anion and -cation of tetraphenylporphyrin derivatives, tetrakis(benzylpyridinium carboxylate), was found to form layered crystal structures and underwent thermal solid-state polycondensation, thus, releasing the pyridine and forming the benzyl ester linkages. Powder X-ray diffraction, when compared to the monomer crystal structure data, suggested that the ladder polymer was produced with a layered structure.
In recent years game-based learning has seen remarkable growth. Existing computer-based learning platforms utilize the Internet to provide efficient access to information, allowing for the exchange of ideas and knowledge. These platforms aim to create an online community; however, such attempts target only traditional Internet users, excluding the ever-increasing number of people that access the World Wide Web via mobile phones. We suggest an innovative approach to enhancing the educational environment, where participants can register and play learning games game on both smartphone and mobile phone devices. We introduce a gamebased learning environment on ubiquitous devices using reality-based simulation games that create a learning environment in which it is possible for students to practice decision making. Additionally we also present some preliminary research results involving volunteers using a sample mobile-based learning game.
Some components of bitterness make key flavor contributions to promote the palatability of foods, whereas other components are recognized as aversive signals to avoid consuming harmful substances. These contradictory behaviors suggest that humans tolerate tastes of bitterants based on certain criteria. Here, we investigated human taste tolerance and sensory cues leading to diverse taste tolerance of bitter compounds. Tolerance of eight bitter compounds, which are typically contained in foods, was evaluated by measuring detection and rejection thresholds. The results revealed that the level of tolerance of each compound was variable, and some compounds showed an acceptable concentration regarding the suprathreshold intensity. Tolerance did not depend on the nutritive value or attenuation and accumulation characteristics of bitterness and bitter taste receptors. These results suggest that the criteria controlling tolerance of bitter compounds may be derived from a complex relationship between the taste quality and cognitive process.
We developed a language QUZXOTS as a tool to deal with various information of natnral language processing (NLP). QUZXOTE is a hybrid language of deductive object-oriented database (DOOD) aiid constraint logic programming (CLP) language. The new niechaiiisiii of QUTXOTC is a coiiibiiiatioii of an objectorieiitatioii coiicept such as object zdentity and the concept of module that classifies a large knowledge base. In addition, its logical inference system is extended to be able to make restricted abduction. We first apply QUZXOTE to the sorted feature structure of constraint-based grammar forinalisins. Next, we show that QUTXOTE can contribute to the description of situation-based semantics. We iinpleiiiented a systein to make abductive reasoning to clarify hidden information. Also we resolve the probleiii of iiouii phrase reference. Basic Structure of QUZXOTE141 as a tool for NLP. QUZXOTC is classified as both a DOOD and CLP language. It has the followiiig features that are also useful in NLP: 0 00 features, such as object identity, 0 attribntc-valiie data st,riictiirc with siibsiuiiption cfficieiit iiiforiiiatioii clcscriptioii with iiiodules 0 question and answer with assumptions.constrailits, i~lltl iiilicritaiicc hi(!riLrchy. itlltl QUZXOTS system is inipleineiited with tlie KL1 laiiguage, a parallel logic prograniiniiig language for the parallel inference machine, PIM, in ICOT.Generally, QUTXOTE programs consist of subsumption relations among basic object teriiis (l.l), snbmodule relations among modules (1.3), aiid rules. QUZXOTC rules have the following syntax. head head-constraant body body-constraznt ---r c c -\ 7120 :: H I HC -+=mi : l31,-.. BC ;;Here. H and B, are object/attribute t e r m . HC and BC are constraints. nz,, called a module irlentifiei;specifies tlie iiiodiile in which terms or rules resides. The body. constraint, ailcl inodule ideiitifier can be omitted.The above rule resides in module mo. It implies that, if every B, holds in a module nz, uiider constraints B C , then H a i d colistrailits HC hold in 1720. Object TermLet Obj,Bobj,Cobj, and V a r be a collection of object t e r m . basic object terms, complex object terns. a d vn~anbles, respectively. Then. Obj = Bobj U Cobj U Var.Basic object terms are atomic symbols siich as c a t aiid apple.Subsumption rekition E, is a partial order relation between basic object terms. a b iiieaiis that a is niore specific tliaii b, or a ISA b, for exaniple, c a t & animal or animal 5 creature. Special basic object teriiis I aiid T satisfy Vx E Bobj; I 5 X , x 5 T. QUZXOTC coinprises a complete lattice from < Bobj. E>.A complex object t m r i is a term having the forin Bohj. ' t i ; E Ohj. Each label 1 , is cz1lt:d ai1 in,tl-insic attl-ibute. The order of labels is not significant, so o Cl=a ,m=bl and o Cm=b, 1=al, for example, are identical. The subsumption relation is extended to treat coinplex object terms. For example, when c a t & animal, cat[age = 2, sex = male] E cat[age = 21 cat[color = white] E animal.
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