Maternal and child undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies affect approximately half of the world’s population. These conditions include intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), low birth weight, protein-energy malnutrition, chronic energy deficit of women, and micronutrient deficiencies. Although the rates of stunting or chronic protein-energy malnutrition are increasing in Africa, the absolute numbers of stunted children are much higher in Asia. The four common micronutrient deficiencies include those of iron, iodine, vitamin A, and zinc. All these conditions are responsible directly or indirectly for more than 50% of all under-5 deaths globally. According to more recent estimates, IUGR, stunting and severe wasting are responsible for one third of under-5 mortality. About 12% of deaths among under-5 children are attributed to the deficiency of the four common micronutrients. Despite tremendous progress in different disciplines and unprecedented improvement with many health indicators, persistently high undernutrition rates are a shame to the society. Human development is not possible without taking care to control undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies. Poverty, food insecurity, ignorance, lack of appropriate infant and young child feeding practices, heavy burden of infectious illnesses, and poor hygiene and sanitation are factors responsible for the high levels of maternal and child undernutrition in developing countries. These factors can be controlled or removed by scaling up direct nutrition interventions and eliminating the root conditions including female illiteracy, lack of livelihoods, lack of women’s empowerment, and poor hygiene and sanitation.

Background: Bangladesh is one of the 20 countries with highest burden of stunting globally. A large portion (around 2.2 million) of the population dwells in the slum areas under severe vulnerable conditions. Children residing in the slums are disproportionately affected with higher burden of undernutrition particularly stunting. In this paper, findings of a prospective cohort study which is part of a larger multi-country study are presented. Methods: Two hundred and sixty five children were enrolled and followed since their birth till 24 months of age. Anthropometric measurements, dietary intake and morbidity information were collected monthly. Data from 9 to 12, 15-18 and 21-24 months were collated to analyze and report findings for 12, 18 and 24 months of age. Generalized estimating equation models were constructed to determine risk factors of stunting between 12 and 24 months of age.Result: Approximately, 18% of children were already stunted (LAZ < -2SD) at birth and the proportion increased to 48% at 24 months of age. Exclusive breastfeeding prevalence was only 9.4% following the WHO definition at 6 months. Dietary energy intake as well as intakes of carbohydrate, fat and protein were suboptimal for majority of the children. However, in regression analysis, LAZ at birth (AOR = 0.40, 95% CI: 0.26, 0.61), household with poor asset index (AOR = 2. 81, 95% CI: 1.43, 5.52; ref.: average asset index), being male children (AOR = 1.75, 95% CI: 1.04, 2.95; ref.: female) and age (AOR = 2.34, 95% CI: 1.56, 3.52 at 24 months, AOR = 2.13, 95% CI: 1.55, 2.92 at 18 months; ref.: 12 months of age) were the significant predictors of stunting among this population. Conclusion: As the mechanism of stunting begins even before a child is born, strategies must be focused on life course approach and preventive measurement should be initiated during pregnancy. Alongside, government and policymakers have to develop sustainable strategies to improve various social and environmental factors those are closely interrelated with chronic undernutrition particularly concentrating on urban slum areas.

Abstract.Environmental enteric dysfunction (EED) causes gut inflammation and increased intestinal permeability leading to deficiencies in micronutrients such as zinc and iron. Fecal markers such as myeloperoxidase (MPO), neopterin (NEO), and alpha-1-anti-trypsin (AAT) can predict EED. The aim of this study was to examine the association between fecal markers of EED with zinc and iron status among children at first 2 years of life. Malnutrition and Enteric Disease Study Bangladeshi birth cohort data were used to conduct this analysis. Multivariable analyses using generalized estimating equations were performed to test the association between individual fecal markers with zinc or iron status of the children. A total of 265 children were enrolled in the study (male:female = 1:1). Of the 627 stool samples collected (N = 222 children), 535, 511, and 577 were accompanied by zinc, ferritin, and soluble transferrin receptor values, respectively. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) values of AAT, MPO, and NEO were 0.33 (0.18–0.62) mg/g, 3,895.42 (1,563.76–8,432.82) ng/mL, and 890.81 (331.57–2,089.04) nmol/L, respectively. Overall, 60%, 71%, and 97% of samples were above the values considered normal in nontropical settings for AAT, MPO, and NEO, respectively. High AAT levels were significantly associated with low ferritin values after adjusting for age and gender (coefficient = −5.85; 95% confidence interval = −11.23 to −0.47; P value = 0.03). No such association was found between AAT and plasma zinc status. Myeloperoxidase and NEO were not associated with plasma zinc or iron status. The study results imply the importance of enteric protein loss in contributing to reduced ferritin levels at first 2 years of life.

The prevalence of stunting among children below 5 years of age is higher in the slum-dwelling population of Bangladesh compared to that in both urban and rural areas. Studies have reported that several factors such as inadequate nutrition, low socio-economic status, poor hygiene and sanitation and lack of maternal education are the substantial predictors of childhood stunting. Almost all these factors are universally present in the slum-dwelling population of Bangladesh. However, few studies have prospectively examined such determinants of stunting among slum populations. In this paper, we reveal the findings of a cohort study with an aim to explore the status of micronutrient adequacy among such vulnerable children and establish its association with stunting along with other determinants. Two-hundred-sixty-five children were enrolled and followed since birth until 24 months of age. We collected anthropometric, morbidity and dietary intake data monthly. We used the 24-hour multiple-pass recall approach to collect dietary intake data from the age of 9 months onward. Micronutrient adequacy of the diet was determined by the mean adequacy ratio (MAR) which was constructed from the average intake of 9 vitamins and 4 minerals considered for the analysis. We used generalized estimating equation (GEE) regression models to establish the determinants of stunting between 12–24 months of age in our study population. The prevalence of low-birth-weight (LBW) was about 28.7% and approximately half of the children were stunted by the age of 24 months. The average micronutrient intake was considerably lower than the recommended dietary allowance and the MAR was only 0.48 at 24 months of age compared to the optimum value of 1. However, the MAR was not associated with stunting between 12–24 months of age. Rather, LBW was the significant determinant (AOR = 3.03, 95% CI: 1.69–5.44) after adjusting for other factors such as age (AOR = 2.12, 95% CI: 1.45–3.11 at 24 months and AOR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.49–2.59 at 18 months, ref: 12 months) and sex (AOR = 1.98, 95% CI: 1.17–3.33, ref: female). Improving the nutritional quality of complementary food in terms of adequacy of micronutrients is imperative for optimum growth but may not be adequate to mitigate under-nutrition in this setting. Further research should focus on identifying multiple strategies that can work synergistically to diminish the burden of stunting in resource-poor settings.

Background Undernutrition and poor cognitive development affect many children in developing countries. Good nutrition and health care are essential for optimal child development and growth. Objectives We assessed the impact of peer counseling combined with psychosocial stimulation on feeding practices and child growth and development in slums in Bangladesh. Methods We performed a community-based cluster randomized controlled trial in selected slums; 350 mother–infant pairs were allocated to receive peer counseling on feeding practices plus psychosocial stimulation (PC + PCS; n = 175) or usual health messages (control; n = 175) using restricted randomization. Data were collected at enrollment and 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 12 mo after delivery. We collected data on infant and young child feeding practices and anthropometric measurements from birth until 12 mo to assess the main outcomes, including feeding practices and growth. We used the Bayley Scale III at 12 mo to assess child development. The effects of the PC + PCS intervention were assessed by using regression models. Results More mothers in the PC + PCS group than in the control group reported early initiation of breastfeeding (in the first hour: 89% compared with 78%, respectively; P < 0.05) and exclusive breastfeeding at 5 mo (73% compared with 27%, respectively; P < 0.001). Peer counseling had positively impacted infant length gain at 12 mo (P < 0.005). Children in the PC + PCS group were found to be more socially and emotionally active compared with controls at 12 mo (standardized score: 0.165 compared with −0.219, respectively; P < 0.05). Conclusion Combining peer counseling with psychosocial stimulation had positive effects on infant feeding practices and growth at 12 mo and on the social–emotional development of young children. This trial was registered at clinicaltrial.gov as NCT03040375.