We report on the electrospinning method to synthesize and characterise chitosan membranes reinforced by halloysite nanotubes (HNTs). The synthesis process addressed two levels of HNTs concentration, i.e., 2 and 5 wt.%. Tensile testing was carried out to determine the strength (σ), strain (ε) at σ and elastic modulus (E) of the membranes. Tensile test data revealed that the membranes reinforced with 5 wt.% HNTs yielded the highest E (0.153 ± 0.02 GPa) and strength (22.53 ± 8.57 MPa). Electron micrographs of the fractured surfaces showed uniform dispersions of HNTs in the chitosan matrix. Infrared spectra indicated interactions between chitosan and inner and outer surfaces of HNTs. Thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated an increase in thermal stability with the addition of HNTs. Membranes immersed in simulated body fluid system for 28 days revealed the formation of dense apatite blocks with the addition of HNTs. Surface roughness increased with the addition of HNTs resulted a rise in degree of contact angle.
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), a well-studied herpesvirus, has been implicated in malignancies derived from breast, colorectal muscle, brain, and other cancers. Intricate host-virus interactions are responsible for the cascade of events that have the potential to result in the transformed phenotype of normal cells. The HCMV genome contains oncogenes that may initiate these types of cancers, and although the primary HCMV infection is usually asymptomatic, the virus remains in the body in a latent or persistent form. Viral reactivation causes severe health issues in immune-compromised individuals, including cancer patients, organ transplants, and AIDS patients. This review focuses on the immunologic mechanisms and molecular mechanisms of HCMV-induced carcinogenesis, methods of HCMV treatment, and other studies. Studies show that HCMV DNA and virus-specific antibodies are present in many types of cancers, implicating HCMV as an important player in cancer progression. Importantly, many clinical trials have been initiated to exploit HCMV as a therapeutic target for the treatment of cancer, particularly in immunotherapy strategies in the treatment of breast cancer and glioblastoma patients. Taken together, these findings support a link between HCMV infections and cellular growth that develops into cancer. More importantly, HCMV is the leading cause of birth defects in newborns, and infection with HCMV is responsible for abortions in pregnant women.
Polymer biocomposites have attracted a lot of attention due to the increasing requirements for biomaterials to replace conventional materials. This replacement is due to the remarkable properties of biomaterials, including their biocompatibility, biodegradability and non-toxicity. Chitosan (CS) is a renowned abundantly-available biopolymer that is furnished with such properties. However chitosan is known to be unstable in acidic conditions, and it has fairly low mechanical strength and requires further improvement for various applications. This study aims to improve the properties of chitosan by making composites of CS reinforced with carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and halloysite nanotubes (HNTs). These composites were prepared through solvent casting method and were investigated for their mechanical, chemical and morphological properties. The mechanical testing results showed that the CS/MCC membranes had the best mechanical properties, with a tensile strength (σ) of 79.98±8.12 MPa and a Young's modulus (E) of 2.44±0.21 GPa. Scanning electron micrographs confirmed that the high mechanical strength of CS/MCC membranes is attributed to better dispersion of MCC in chitosan. Infrared spectroscopy compared the chemical interactions between the main functional groups of the matrix and fillers. A surface wettability test was performed and revealed that chitosan membranes reinforced with 10 (w/w%) of CMC had the lowest (88.45°) and chitosan membrane with 5 (w/w%) HNT and 5 (w/w%) had the highest contact angle (130.83°). Addition of both CMC and MCC led to an improvement of the mechanical properties over the pure chitosan membrane, which was attributed to a significant interaction between chitosan and cellulose through hydrogen bonding.
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