Summary1. Altered global climates in the 21st century pose serious threats for biological systems and practical actions are needed to mount a response for species at risk. 2. We identify management actions from across the world and from diverse disciplines that are applicable to minimizing loss of amphibian biodiversity under climate change. Actions were grouped under three thematic areas of intervention: (i) installation of microclimate and microhabitat refuges; (ii) enhancement and restoration of breeding sites; and (iii) manipulation of hydroperiod or water levels at breeding sites. 3. Synthesis and applications. There are currently few meaningful management actions that will tangibly impact the pervasive threat of climate change on amphibians. A host of potentially useful but poorly tested actions could be incorporated into local or regional management plans, programmes and activities for amphibians. Examples include: installation of irrigation sprayers to manipulate water potentials at breeding sites; retention or supplementation of natural and artificial shelters (e.g. logs, cover boards) to reduce desiccation and thermal stress; manipulation of canopy cover over ponds to reduce water temperature; and, creation of hydrologoically diverse wetland habitats capable of supporting larval development under variable rainfall
Amphibians that utilise temporary wetlands with unpredictable hydrology are living on the edge, maintaining viable populations under variable climatic conditions. Information on their breeding ecology will provide insight into their adaptive capacity and resilience to climate change. The environmental factors influencing breeding of a temporary wetland breeding frog (Litoria olongburensis) from eastern Australia were examined over two breeding seasons from August 2009 to March 2011. The influence of biotic and abiotic wetland characteristics on the abundance and seasonality of L. olongburensis aquatic larvae was quantified throughout the latitudinal range of the species. Substantial variation in yearly precipitation resulted in changes to the timing of breeding, and patterns of tadpole and predator abundance, which also varied along a hydroperiod gradient. Litoria olongburensis displayed adaptive strategies, including breeding when hydrological conditions were likely to last longest, and short time to hatching and metamorphosis. Concentrating breeding efforts early during wetland filling coincided with low predator densities. These pre-adaptations may reflect an adaptive capacity to predicted changes in frequency and reliability of precipitation as a result of climate change, and may apply to other temporary wetland species. Their conservation depends on preserving wetlands with a variety of hydroperiods within a landscape matrix.
Amphibian reproductive biology and activity are highly sensitive to environmental cues. For amphibian conservation in the face of climate change, a clear priority is to investigate impacts of variable weather on breeding activity and detectability. This study assessed variation in the phenology, intensity and detectability of calling for a threatened temporary wetland breeding species, Litoria olongburensis. Acoustic and visual surveys were conducted monthly from August 2009 to July 2011 over the species latitudinal range in eastern Australia. Calling phenology of L. olongburensis varied spatially and temporally within and among latitudinal clusters. Detectability of frogs also varied among months and transects, and also with the type of survey conducted (visual vs. acoustic). Air temperature was a strong predictor for the onset of the calling season (early spring); however, peaks in calling abundances were primarily driven by monthly accumulated rainfall. The duration of the calling season varied among latitudinal clusters, becoming narrower moving south, reflecting clinal variation in weather patterns. This study presents a framework for amphibian species management using a combination of survey techniques and the climatic conditions influencing detectability. Applied along the latitudinal gradient, it provides data for predicting the likely impacts of climate change on amphibian activity and reproduction.
The strategies used by ectotherms to minimise the detrimental effects of suboptimal thermal environments on physiological performance are often related to whether they inhabit a terrestrial or aquatic environment. Most terrestrial ectotherms use thermoregulatory strategies to maintain body temperature within an optimal range, while many aquatic ectotherms utilise thermal acclimation to maintain performance over varying seasonal temperatures. This study aimed to elucidate the relative contributions of acclimation and behavioural thermoregulation to maintaining whole-animal performance over varying seasonal temperatures in the semi-terrestrial Lamington spiny crayfish (Euastacus sulcatus). Crayfish activity and surface temperatures were determined by means of radio tracking and behavioural observations. Field studies demonstrated that E. sulcatus is exposed to stable daily temperatures, varying only between seasons from 10 degrees C in late winter to over 20 degrees C in summer. Also, terrestrial behaviour corresponded to a small portion of crayfish time (1.13%), much lower than predicted, indicating that E. sulcatus has limited opportunity for behavioural thermoregulation. We also tested the effect of acclimation to either 10 or 20 degrees C on chela strength and stamina. We found acclimation had a more marked effect on chela stamina than maximum strength measures; however, overall acclimatory capacity was limited in E. sulcatus. Thus, we found that the semi-terrestrial crayfish E. sulcatus used neither thermoregulatory behaviours nor physiological strategies to deal with seasonal changes in environmental temperature.
Fire has varying effects on species ecology. Knowledge of amphibian responses to fire is particularly limited, with variable responses reported amongst studies. Variability is attributed to differences in fire regimes, sampling methodologies, historical exposure to fire and species traits. Acid frogs, a group of amphibians restricted to acidic coastal heath wetlands of eastern Australia, occupy a discrete ecological niche that is exposed to regular and intense fires. Visual encounter surveys conducted monthly over 2 years revealed different short- and long-term responses to fire in three threatened acid frog species (Litoria olongburensis, Litoria freycineti and Crinia tinnula). Fires altered the thermal properties of habitats by increasing substrate temperature and widening daily temperature ranges. Acid frog populations did not suffer adversely from moderate intensity fires as suitable refuges, including standing water, were available. All species were present shortly after fire with subsequent successful reproduction occurring once wetlands were sufficiently inundated. Time since fire was a strong predictor of landscape scale differences in average relative abundance of acid frogs, yet the relationships varied among species. This highlights the importance of assessing community-wide responses to fire at the landscape scale. The dynamic and adaptive responses observed within acid frog populations demonstrate substantial resilience to fire processes in these fire prone environments.
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