Friedemann K., Wipfler B., Bradler S. and Beutel R.G. 2011. On the head morphology of Phyllium and the phylogenetic relationships of Phasmatodea (Insecta). —Acta Zoologica (Stockholm) 00: 1–16. External and internal head structures of Phyllium siccifolium are described in detail. The findings are compared with conditions found in other phasmatodeans and members of other neopteran lineages. The compiled 125 characters were analysed cladistically. A clade Eukinolabia (Phasmatodea + Embioptera) was confirmed. Synapomorphies of these two taxa are the shift of the origin of M. tentorioparaglossalis to the hind margin of the prementum, the presence of M. tentorioscapalis medialis, and antennal muscles that originate exclusively on the anterior tentorial arms. Within Eukinolabia, the position of Timema remains somewhat ambiguous because of missing anatomical data. However, it was confirmed as sister group of Euphasmatodea in a monophyletic Phasmatodea. Apomorphic groundplan features of Euphasmatodea are salivary ducts with separate external openings, apically rounded glossae, the presence of the galealobulus, and the reduction of the antennifer. The monophyly of Neophasmatidae was confirmed. Autapomorphies are the loss of M. frontobuccalis posterior, the anteriorly or dorsally directed maxillary palps, and the reduction of the mandibular incisivi. The analysis of characters of the head yielded three new autapomorphies of Phylliinae, the presence of a protuberance on the attachment site of the dorsal tentorial arms, dorsoventrally flattened maxillary‐ and labial palps, and possibly the narrow and U‐shaped field of trichomes on the apical part of the galea.

Acercaria display an unusually broad array of adhesive devices occurring on different parts of the legs. Attachment structures of all major subgroups are described and illustrated. Nineteen characters of the distal leg region were combined with a data matrix containing 99 additional morphological characters of different body parts. The results of the cladistic analysis are largely congruent with current hypotheses. Zoraptera are not retrieved as close relatives of Acercaria. The monophyly of the entire lineage and of the major subgroups Psocodea, Phthiraptera, and Hemiptera is confirmed. Our data also support the monophyly of Auchenorrhycha and a sister-group relationship between Thysanoptera and Hemiptera (Condylognatha). In contrast to other lineages of insects, the hairy type of adhesive device is present only in one group within the Acercaria (Heteroptera, Cimicomorpha). The arolium is present in the groundplan but missing in several groups (e.g. Psocodea, Cicadoidea, Aphidoidea). Pretarsal pulvilli evolved several times independently. Tarsal euplantulae and different specialized clasping devices have evolved within Phthiraptera, whereas pretarsal attachment devices are missing in this ectoparasitic group. The potential to modify pretarsal attachment devices in their structural details has probably contributed to the very successful diversification of the predominantly phytophagous Hemiptera.

We sampled 14,603 geometrid moths along a forested elevational gradient from 1020–3021 m in the southern Ecuadorian Andes, and then employed DNA barcoding to refine decisions on species boundaries initially made by morphology. We compared the results with those from an earlier study on the same but slightly shorter gradient that relied solely on morphological criteria to discriminate species. The present analysis revealed 1857 putative species, an 80% increase in species richness from the earlier study that detected only 1010 species. Measures of species richness and diversity that are less dependent on sample size were more than twice as high as in the earlier study, even when analysis was restricted to an identical elevational range. The estimated total number of geometrid species (new dataset) in the sampled area is 2350. Species richness at single sites was 32–43% higher, and the beta diversity component rose by 43–51%. These impacts of DNA barcoding on measures of richness reflect its capacity to reveal cryptic species that were overlooked in the first study. The overall results confirmed unique diversity patterns reported in the first investigation. Species diversity was uniformly high along the gradient, declining only slightly above 2800 m. Species turnover also showed little variation along the gradient, reinforcing the lack of evidence for discrete faunal zones. By confirming these major biodiversity patterns, the present study establishes that incomplete species delineation does not necessarily conceal trends of biodiversity along ecological gradients, but it impedes determination of the true magnitude of diversity and species turnover.

Pretarsal attachment structures of representatives of the megadiverse Diptera are examined and documented, mainly using scanning electron microscopy. The focus is on the basal 'nematoceran' lineages. The diversity in structures is much higher than suggested by brief summarizing accounts in earlier studies. Both hairy and smooth attachment structures occur. A well-developed, pad-like empodium with its ventral surface covered with adhesive hairs is arguably a groundplan feature of Diptera. Very often this pad is combined with the presence of hairy pulvilli. However, smooth pulvilli occur in two of the examined groups. A smooth arolium is present in Tipulomorpha and likely an autapomorphy of this clade, suggesting that it was acquired secondarily. Evolutionary transformations are interpreted based on recently published dipteran phylogenies.