Biotin-dependent multifunctional enzymes carry out metabolically important carboxyl group transfer reactions and are potential targets for the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes. These enzymes use a tethered biotin cofactor to carry an activated carboxyl group between distantly spaced active sites. The mechanism of this transfer has remained poorly understood. Here we report the complete structure of pyruvate carboxylase at 2.0 angstroms resolution, which shows its domain arrangement. The structure, when combined with mutagenic analysis, shows that intermediate transfer occurs between active sites on separate polypeptide chains. In addition, domain rearrangements associated with activator binding decrease the distance between active-site pairs, providing a mechanism for allosteric activation. This description provides insight into the function of biotin-dependent enzymes and presents a new paradigm for multifunctional enzyme catalysis.

Ataxia-telangiectasia mutated and Rad3 related (ATR)-Seckel syndrome and autosomal recessive primary microcephaly (MCPH) syndrome share clinical features. RNA interference (RNAi) of MCPH1 have implicated the protein it encodes as a DNA-damage response protein that regulates the transcription of Chk1 and BRCA1, two genes involved in the response to DNA damage. Here, we report that truncating mutations observed in MCPH-syndrome patients do not impact on Chk1 or BRCA1 expression or early ATR-dependent damage-induced phosphorylation events. However, like ATR-Seckel syndrome cells, MCPH1-mutant cell lines show defective G2-M checkpoint arrest and nuclear fragmentation after DNA damage, and contain supernumerary mitotic centrosomes. MCPH1-mutant and ATR-Seckel cells also show impaired degradation of Cdc25A and fail to inhibit Cdc45 loading onto chromatin after replication arrest. Additionally, microcephalin interacts with Chk1. We conclude that MCPH1 has a function downstream of Chk1 in the ATR-signalling pathway. In contrast with ATR-Seckel syndrome cells, MCPH1-mutant cells have low levels of Tyr 15-phosphorylated Cdk1 (pY15-Cdk1) in S and G2 phases, which correlates with an elevated frequency of G2-like cells displaying premature chromosome condensation (PCC). Thus, MCPH1 also has an ATR-independent role in maintaining inhibitory Cdk1 phosphorylation, which prevents premature entry into mitosis.

The IR (insulin receptor) and IGFR (type I insulin-like growth factor receptor) are found as homodimers, but the respective pro-receptors can also heterodimerize to form insulin-IGF hybrid receptors. There are conflicting data on the ligand affinity of hybrids, and especially on the influence of different IR isoforms. To investigate further the contribution of individual ligand binding epitopes to affinity and specificity in the IR/IGFR family, we generated hybrids incorporating both IR isoforms (A and B) and IR/IGFR domain-swap chimaeras, by ectopic co-expression of receptor constructs in Chinese hamster ovary cells, and studied ligand binding using both radioligand competition and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assays. We found that IR-A-IGFR and IR-B-IGFR hybrids bound insulin with similar relatively low affinity, which was intermediate between that of homodimeric IR and homodimeric IGFR. However, both IR-A-IGFR and IR-B-IGFR hybrids bound IGF-I and IGF-II with high affinity, at a level comparable with homodimeric IGFR. Incorporation of a significant fraction of either IR-A or IR-B into hybrids resulted in abrogation of insulin- but not IGF-I-stimulated autophosphorylation. We conclude that the sequence of 12 amino acids encoded by exon 11 of the IR gene has little or no effect on ligand binding and activation of IR-IGFR hybrids, and that hybrid receptors bind IGFs but not insulin at physiological concentrations regardless of the IR isoform they contained. To reconstitute high affinity insulin binding within a hybrid receptor, chimaeras in which the IGFR L1 or L2 domains had been replaced by equivalent IR domains were co-expressed with full-length IR-A or IR-B. In the context of an IR-A-IGFR hybrid, replacement of IR residues 325-524 (containing the L2 domain and part of the first fibronectin domain) with the corresponding IGFR sequence increased the affinity for insulin by 20-fold. We conclude that the L2 and/or first fibronectin domains of IR contribute in trans with the L1 domain to create a high affinity insulin-binding site within a dimeric receptor.

The catalytic mechanism of the MgATP-dependent carboxylation of biotin in the biotin carboxylase domain of pyruvate carboxylase from R. etli (RePC) is common to the biotin-dependent carboxylases. The current site-directed mutagenesis study has clarified the catalytic functions of several residues proposed to be pivotal in MgATP-binding and cleavage (Glu218 and Lys245), HCO3− deprotonation (Glu305 and Arg301) and biotin enolization (Arg353). The E218A mutant was inactive for any reaction involving the BC domain and the E218Q mutant exhibited a 75-fold decrease in kcat for both pyruvate carboxylation and the full reverse reaction. The E305A mutant also showed a 75- and 80-fold decrease in kcat for both pyruvate carboxylation and the full reverse reaction, respectively. While Glu305 appears to be the active site base which deprotonates HCO3−, Lys245, Glu218 and Arg301 are proposed to contribute to catalysis through substrate binding interactions. The reactions of the biotin carboxylase and carboxyl transferase domains were uncoupled in the R353M-catalyzed reactions, indicating that Arg353 may not only facilitate the formation of the biotin enolate, but also assist in coordinating catalysis between the two spatially distinct active sites. The 2.5 and 4-fold increase in kcat for the full reverse reaction with the R353K and R353M mutants, respectively, suggests that mutation of Arg353 allows carboxybiotin increased access to the biotin carboxylase domain active site. The proposed chemical mechanism is initiated by the deprotonation of HCO3− by Glu305 and concurrent nucleophilic attack on the γ-phosphate of MgATP. The trianionic carboxyphosphate intermediate formed reversibly decomposes in the active site to CO2 and PO43−. PO43− then acts as the base to deprotonate the tethered biotin at the N1-position. Stabilized by interactions between the ureido oxygen and Arg353, the biotin-enolate reacts with CO2 to give carboxybiotin. The formation of a distinct salt bridge between Arg353 and Glu248 is proposed to aid in partially precluding carboxybiotin from reentering the biotin carboxylase active site, thus preventing its premature decarboxylation prior to the binding of a carboxyl acceptor in the carboxyl transferase domain.

The physiological roles of insulin and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are distinct, with insulin acting to regulate cellular uptake and metabolism of fuels, whereas IGFs promote cell growth, survival and differentiation. The only components of signalling pathways known to be unique to insulin and IGFs are their respective receptors, and even these display substantial structural and functional similarity. Specificity of action in vivo must in part reflect relative levels of receptor expression in different tissues. The extent to which the receptors differ in intrinsic signalling capacity remains unclear, but specificity might in principle arise from differences in ligand-binding mechanism or properties of intracellular domains. To identify ligand binding determinants we expressed receptor fragments as soluble proteins. Both N-terminal domains and a C-terminal peptide sequence from the alpha-subunit are essential for ligand binding with moderate affinity. However, binding of ligand with high affinity and specificity requires higher-order structure. To compare signalling capacities, we constructed chimaeras containing intracellular domains of insulin or IGF receptors fused to the extracellular portion of TrkC. Expression and activation of these chimaeras in cell lines reveals subtle differences in signalling and end-point responses, which may depend on cell background.

IntroductionGene therapy for red blood cell (RBC) disorders, particularly for hemoglobinopathies, using retroviral vectors has been fraught with problems. Moloney murine leukemia virus (MLV) vectors are the most extensively studied oncoretroviral vectors. However, they do not transduce the nondividing hematopoietic stem cells. Exogenous genes in MLV vectors, driven by the viral long terminal repeat (LTR) promoter/enhancer, are expressed in a lineage-nonspecific manner. In addition, the MLV LTR interferes with the erythroid lineage-specific regulatory elements inserted in the vectors, resulting in unstable proviral transmission or poor transgene expression or both. [1][2][3] Transcriptional interference from the LTR 4-6 can be overcome by self-inactivating (SIN) vectors. In SIN vectors, the LTR promoter/enhancers are deleted on integration of the provirus. 7,8 However, SIN-MLV vectors have shown limited applicability, because the deletion of the TATA box in them results in inefficient 3Ј end processing of the viral RNA genome, resulting in low titer vectors.Retroviral vectors are RNA-based vectors and, therefore, are restricted to incorporating complementary DNA (cDNA) forms of processed messenger RNA (mRNA). This results in low expression of intron-dependent genes, such as globin. 9,10 Introns in the globin gene enhance transcription and allow proper 3Ј end processing and export of globin transcripts into the cytoplasm. [11][12][13][14] Retention of introns of the globin genes can be achieved by using vectors that contain the globin gene in reverse orientation to the viral transcriptional unit. However, this has not improved expression because these vectors have additional problems with antisense effects of the transcripts, low titers, and proviral instability. 2 Another way is to increase the expression of the globin cDNA that can be placed in sense orientation in the vector. Recently, the human and woodchuck hepatitis virus posttranscriptional regulatory elements (HPRE and WPRE) have been reported to replace the functions of the globin intron and improve expression of the globin cDNA. 15,16 The recently developed lentiviral vectors (derived from the human immunodeficiency virus 1 [20][21][22] We therefore hypothesized that modular use of erythroidspecific enhancers and promoters and inclusion of the WPRE in SIN-lentiviral vectors could address issues of enhancer interference and intron independence of the globin gene and result in high-level erythroid-expressing cassettes for gene therapy of RBC disorders. We tested 4 erythroid enhancers with 4 erythroid promoters in different combinations with and without the WPRE, using green fluorescence protein (GFP) as the reporter gene. We observed a high-level, stable, and erythroid-lineage specific gene expression from vectors containing erythroid-specific elements. The highest levels of expression were seen with the ankyrin-1 promoter, in combination with 2 enhancers in tandem (the GATA-1 and HS-40 or the I8 and HS-40 enhancer pairs) in primary human cells as well a...

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We have characterized the 5-flanking region of the human erythroid-specific 5-amino levulinate synthase (ALAS) gene (the ALAS2 gene) and shown that the first 300 base pairs of promoter sequence gives maximal expression in erythroid cells. Transcription factor binding sites clustered within this promoter sequence include GATA motifs and CACCC boxes, critical regulatory sequences of many erythroid cell-expressed genes. GATA sites at ؊126/؊121 (on the noncoding strand) and ؊102/ ؊97 were each recognized by GATA-1 protein in vitro using erythroid cell nuclear extracts. Promoter mutagenesis and transient expression assays in erythroid cells established that both GATA-1 binding sites were functional and exogenously expressed GATA-1 increased promoter activity through these sites in transactivation experiments. A noncanonical TATA sequence at the expected TATA box location (؊30/؊23) bound GATA-1-or TATA-binding protein (TBP) in vitro. Conversion of this sequence to a canonical TATA box reduced expression in erythroid cells, suggesting a specific role for GATA-1 at this site. However, expression was also markedly reduced when the ؊30/؊23 sequence was converted to a consensus GATA-1 sequence (that did not bind TBP in vitro), suggesting that a functional interaction of both factors with this sequence is important. A sequence comprising two overlapping CACCC boxes at ؊59/؊48 (on the noncoding strand) was demonstrated by mutagenesis to be functionally important. This CACCC sequence bound Sp1, erythroid Krü ppellike factor, and basic Krü ppel-like factor in vitro, while in transactivation experiments erythroid Krü ppel-like factor activated ALAS2 promoter expression through this sequence. A sequence at ؊49/؊39 with a 9/11 match to the consensus for the erythroid specific factor NF-E2 was not functional. Promoter constructs with 5-flanking sequence from 293 base pairs to 10.3 kilobase pairs expressed efficiently in COS-1 cells as well as in erythroid cells, indicating that an enhancer sequence located elsewhere or native chromatin structure may be required for the tissue-restricted expression of the gene in vivo.