The development of a permissive small animal model for the study of human immunodeficiency virus type (HIV)-1 pathogenesis and the testing of antiviral strategies has been hampered by the inability of HIV-1 to infect primary rodent cells productively. In this study, we explored transgenic rats expressing the HIV-1 receptor complex as a susceptible host. Rats transgenic for human CD4 (hCD4) and the human chemokine receptor CCR5 (hCCR5) were generated that express the transgenes in CD4+ T lymphocytes, macrophages, and microglia. In ex vivo cultures, CD4+ T lymphocytes, macrophages, and microglia from hCD4/hCCR5 transgenic rats were highly susceptible to infection by HIV-1 R5 viruses leading to expression of abundant levels of early HIV-1 gene products comparable to those found in human reference cultures. Primary rat macrophages and microglia, but not lymphocytes, from double-transgenic rats could be productively infected by various recombinant and primary R5 strains of HIV-1. Moreover, after systemic challenge with HIV-1, lymphatic organs from hCD4/hCCR5 transgenic rats contained episomal 2–long terminal repeat (LTR) circles, integrated provirus, and early viral gene products, demonstrating susceptibility to HIV-1 in vivo. Transgenic rats also displayed a low-level plasma viremia early in infection. Thus, transgenic rats expressing the appropriate human receptor complex are promising candidates for a small animal model of HIV-1 infection.

Progress in developing a small animal model of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) disease would greatly facilitate studies of transmission, pathogenesis, host immune responses, and antiviral strategies. In this study, we have explored the potential of rats as a susceptible host. In a single replication cycle, rat cell lines Rat2 and Nb2 produced infectious virus at levels 10-to 60-fold lower than those produced by human cells. Rat-derived cells supported substantial levels of early HIV-1 gene expression, which was further enhanced by overexpression of human cyclin T1. Rat cells displayed quantitative, qualitative, and cell-type-specific limitations in the late phase of the HIV-1 replication cycle including relative expression levels of HIV-1 Gag proteins, intracellular Gag processing, and viral egress. Nb2 cells were rendered permissive to HIV-1 R5 viruses by coexpression of human CD4 and CCR5, indicating that the major restriction on HIV-1 replication was at the level of cellular entry. We also found that primary rat lymphocytes, macrophages, and microglia expressed considerable levels of early HIV-1 gene products following infection with pseudotyped HIV-1. Importantly, primary rat macrophages and microglia, but not lymphocytes, also expressed substantial levels of HIV-1 p24 CA and produced infectious virions. Collectively, these results identify the rat as a promising candidate for a transgenic small animal model of HIV-1 infection and highlight pertinent cell-type-specific restrictions that are features of this species.It has long been recognized that human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replicates efficiently in human cells but is subject to potent species-specific restrictions in cells from many nonprimate species (25,33,34,44). Several advances have been made recently in elucidating the molecular bases of such blocks to HIV-1 replication in nonprimate cells. These discoveries have recharged efforts to develop small animal models of infection for use in the study of pathogenesis, the screening of drugs, and the testing of vaccines.A first important advance was made with the understanding of the requirements for human chemokine receptors as cofactors with human CD4 (hCD4) for cell surface fusion and entry of HIV-1 (reviewed in references 28 and 43). The discovery of the primary roles played by human CCR5 (hCCR5) and human CXCR4 (hCXCR4) renewed hopes for the development of a transgenic mouse model. However, while coexpression of hCD4 and a human chemokine receptor largely overcame the entry block in mouse NIH 3T3 cells (5, 20, 40) as well as in primary T cells from mice transgenic for either hCD4 and hCCR5 (11) or hCD4 and hCXCR4 (49), these mouse cells exhibited little or no productive infection.A second advance has been in understanding postentry blocks to HIV-1 replication in some rodent cell lines. At least one restriction in cell lines from mice and hamsters is the inability of the viral transcription regulator, Tat, to activate transcription from the long terminal repeat (LTR) of HIV-1,...

cRespiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infects elderly (>65 years) adults, causing medically attended illness and hospitalizations. While RSV neutralizing antibody levels correlate inversely with RSV-associated hospitalization in the elderly, the role of RSVspecific T cells in preventing disease in the elderly remains unclear. We examined RSV-specific humoral, mucosal, and cellular immune profiles in healthy elderly (65 to 85 years) and young (20 to 30 years) adults. RSV neutralization antibody titers in the elderly (10.5 ؎ 2.2 log 2 ) and young (10.5 ؎ 2.1 log 2 ) were similar. In contrast, levels of RSV F protein-specific gamma interferon (IFN-␥)-producing T cells were lower in elderly (180 ؎ 80 spot-forming cells [SFC]/10 6 peripheral blood mononuclear cells [PBMC]) than in young adults (1,250 ؎ 420 SFC/10 6 PBMC). Higher levels of interleukin-13 (IL-13; 3,000 ؎ 1,000 pg/ml) in cultured PBMC supernatants and lower frequency of RSV F-specific CD107a ؉ CD8 ؉ T cells (3.0% ؎ 1.6% versus 5.0% ؎ 1.6%) were measured in PBMC from elderly than young adults. These results suggest that deficient RSV F-specific T cell responses contribute to susceptibility to severe RSV disease in elderly adults. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes annual outbreaks of respiratory disease. In North America and western Europe, these outbreaks are seasonal, occurring in winter and lasting for about 4 months. While the high global disease burden of RSV in young children and infants is well documented (1-5), the epidemiology of RSV illness in elderly adults is less well defined. Data from a variety of studies (6-14) suggest that in U.S. adults over 65 years of age, the overall annual incidence of RSV illness is ϳ3 to 4%, with an estimated annual RSV-associated hospitalization rate of ϳ0.1 to 0.4% and an estimated 10,000 RSV-associated deaths per year (Table 1).The immune correlates associated with increased susceptibility to severe RSV illness in the elderly are not well understood. Serum anti-RSV neutralizing antibody titers have been reported to inversely correlate with an increased risk of RSV-associated hospitalizations in the elderly (15). Other studies have found that the RSV-specific memory CD8 ϩ T cells are reduced in the peripheral blood of healthy elderly adults (16,17), and that a switch from a CD4 ϩ Th1 to a Th2 functional phenotype occurs with age (17). One report suggested that aging is associated with a defect in T cell responses to RSV, and this defect in cellular immunity is related to RSV disease susceptibility in older adults (18). These studies suggest that either waning RSV-specific neutralizing antibodies or declining cell-mediated immunity, or a combination of both, contribute to the greater severity of RSV disease in elderly compared to young adults.Our immune profiling studies revealed that plasma from healthy young and elderly adults had comparably high RSV neutralizing antibody titers. However, RSV F protein-specific memory CD4 ϩ and CD8 ϩ T cell responses were significantly lower in the elderly than young donors,...

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BackgroundRespiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) causes significant disease in the elderly, in part, because immunosenescence impairs protective immune responses to infection in this population. Despite previous and current efforts, there is no RSV vaccine currently licensed in infants or elderly adults. Adjuvanted RSV subunit vaccines have the potential to boost waning immune responses and reduce the burden of RSV disease in the elderly population.ResultsWe used an aged BALB/c mouse model to evaluate immune responses to RSV Fusion (F) protein in the absence and presence of an alum adjuvant. We demonstrate that aged BALB/c mice immunized with alum-adjuvanted RSV F protein had significantly reduced lung viral titers at day 4 following challenge with wild-type (wt) RSV. Serum neutralizing antibody titers measured on day 27 correlated with protection in both young and aged vaccinated mice, although the magnitude of antibody titers was lower in aged mice. Unlike young mice, in aged mice, alum-adjuvanted RSV F did not induce lung TH2-type cytokines or eosinophil infiltration compared to non-adjuvanted F protein following wt RSV challenge.ConclusionOur studies demonstrate that neutralizing anti-RSV antibody titers correlate with protection in both young and aged BALB/c mice vaccinated with RSV F protein vaccines. The F + alum formulation mediated greater protection compared to the non-adjuvanted F protein in both young and aged mice. However, while alum can boost F-specific antibody responses in aged mice, it does not completely overcome the reduced ability of a senescent immune system to respond to the RSV F antigen. Thus, our data suggest that a stronger adjuvant may be required for the prevention of RSV disease in immunosenescent populations, to achieve the appropriate balance of protective neutralizing antibodies and effective TH1-type cytokine response along with minimal lung immunopathology.

The function of the zeta-globin promoter was studied using a series of zeta-globin promoter deletion constructs to drive luciferase expression in transiently transfected human erythroleukemia cells. The promoters were used without enhancers, or with enhancers derived from the beta-globin locus control region and the alpha-globin HS-40 enhancer. When transfected into K562 cells, which express zeta-globin, comparable amounts of activity were obtained from the -557 and -417 zeta-luciferase constructs and the alpha-luciferase constructs when no enhancers or the alpha-globin locus enhancers were used. When the constructs were transfected into OCIM1 cells, which do not express zeta-globin, the zeta-globin promoters were at best 20% as active as the alpha-globin promoters. When sequences from -417 to -207 5′ to the zeta-globin mRNA cap site were deleted, up to 95% of the zeta-globin promoter activity was lost in K562 cells. Reinsertion of these sequences into zeta-luciferase constructs missing the -417 to -207 region showed that the sequences lack classical enhancer activity. Point mutation of a GATA-1 site at -230 reduced promoter activity by 37%. Point mutation of a CCACC site at -240 had no effect. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicated that the -230 GATA-1 site has a relatively low affinity for GATA-1. These experiments show the presence of a strong positive-acting element, located between -417 and -207 bp 5′ to the zeta-globin mRNA cap site, is necessary for high-level promoter activity in K562 cells. This element requires GATA-1 and additional unknown factors for maximal activity.

Immunostimulatory sequences (ISS) are short DNA sequences containing unmethylated CpG dimers that have multiple effects on the host immune system, including the ability to stimulate antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and drive Th1-type immune responses. Listeriolysin O (LLO)-containing pH-sensitive liposomes have been shown to efficiently deliver macromolecules to the cytosol of APCs and efficiently stimulate CTLs. We hypothesized that encapsulating ISS-oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) in this delivery system would enhance the cell-mediated immune response and skew Th1-type responses in protein antigen-based vaccination utilizing LLO-liposomes. In vitro studies indicated that co-encapsulation of ISS in LLO-liposomes engendered activation of the NF-κB pathway while maintaining the efficient cytosolic delivery of antigen mediated by the co-encapsulated LLO. Antigen-specific CTL responses monitored by using the model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) in mice were enhanced when mice were immunized with OVA and ISS-ODN-containing LLO-liposomes compared with those immunized with either OVA-containing LLO-liposomes or OVA-ISS conjugates. The enhanced immune responses were of the Th1-type as monitored by the robust OVA-specific IgG2a induction and the OVA CD8 peptide-stimulated IFN-γ secretion. Our study suggests that including ISS-ODN in LLO-containing pH-sensitive liposomes yields a vaccine delivery system that enhances the cell-mediated immune response and skews this response toward the Th1-type.

Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV)-based gene therapy vectors are in development for many inherited human disorders. In nonclinical studies, cellular immune responses mediated by cytotoxic T cells may target vector-transduced cells, which could impact safety and efficacy. Here, we describe the bioanalytical validation of an interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-based Enzyme-Linked Immunospot (ELISpot) assay for measuring T cell responses against viral antigens in cynomolgus monkeys. Since ELISpots performed with antigen-derived peptides offer a universal assay format, method performance characteristics were validated using widely available peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) responsive to cytomegalovirus peptides. The limit of detection and confirmatory cut point were established using statistical methods; precision, specificity, and linearity were confirmed. Monkey PBMCs from an AAV5 gene therapy study were then analyzed, using peptide pools spanning the vector capsid and transgene product. AAV5-specific T cell responses were detected only in 2 of 18 monkeys at Day 28, but not at Day 13 and 56 after vector administration, with no correlation to liver enzyme elevations or transgene expression levels. No transgene product-specific T cell responses occurred. In conclusion, while viral peptide-specific IFN-γ ELISpots can be successfully validated for monkey PBMCs, monitoring peripheral T cell responses in non-clinical AAV5 gene therapy studies was of limited value to interpret safety or efficacy.