The dual-component model postulates that working memory capacity consists of two dissociable components: maintenance in primary memory (PM) and retrieval from secondary memory (SM). Recent application of this model to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has revealed that the SM component is more deficient than the PM component across both verbal and spatial modalities. The present study attempts to strengthen this conclusion by addressing two weaknesses in the previous study. First, the present study shows that the SM component continues to be more deficient than the PM component across both modalities under conditions in which (1) all participants were instructed to use the same recall strategy (resulting in the exclusion of fewer participants); and, (2) individual differences in this strategy were controlled. Second, the present study also documents a group difference in word reading efficiency that is confounded with diagnostic status and that might have influenced estimates of PM and SM capacities in the verbal modality. However, although the SM component is more deficient than the PM component in the ADHD group, the magnitude of this interaction does not vary as a function task modality. These findings are interpreted to suggest that the pattern of WM deficiencies observed are part of a causal pathway that can lead to the symptoms of ADHD, as well as to impairments in reading (and intelligence) due to overlapping cue-dependent retrieval mechanisms. These findings provide additional support for the notion that the SM component of WM is an important and neglected target for treatment.

Working memory (WM) is the ability to temporarily store and retrieve a limited amount of information during complex cognitive activities, especially in the face of distraction. The dual-component model describes WM as including active maintenance in primary memory (PM) and cuedependent search and retrieval from secondary memory (SM). Previously, researchers have found that WM training (WMT) fails to enhance SM capacity, a component that mediates the relationship between WM and fluid reasoning (gF). Thus, a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, randomized trial was conducted to elucidate whether retrieval from SM could be targeted using a two-component WMT regimen versus two control conditions: adaptive one-component WMT targeting solely PM capacity and non-adaptive one-component WMT. Participants were 174 adolescents, aged 10 to 13 years, who were assessed before, after, and 6 months following training. Retrieval from SM was measured using delayed free recall tasks, far transfer to gF was assessed with matrix reasoning and verbal inference tests, and far transfer to academic performance was assessed with reading and math tests. It was predicted that solely two-component WMT would enhance retrieval from SM and result in far transfer. ANCOVAs with pre-test scores as the covariate indicated that two-component participants increased total errors over controls. There were no significant differences between the groups on recall latency, total correct, or gF measures. The non-adaptive one-component group significantly improved on reading, although a drop in the other two groups drove the effect. Additional research is needed to elucidate whether theoretically motivated WMT can positively impact higher-level cognition through SM retrieval mechanisms. Keywords Working memory . Working memory training . Secondary memoryWorking memory (WM) is a multifaceted cognitive ability that allows for the temporary storage and retrieval of a limited amount of goal-relevant information during complex cognitive activities, especially in the face of distraction (Kane and Engle 2002;Unsworth and Engle 2007a). As a construct, WM has taken a core role in modern theories of cognition because it strongly relates to our ability to solve novel complex problems and adapt to new situations in daily life (i.e., fluid reasoning (gF)) (Carpenter et al. 1990;Cattell 1943;de Abreu et al. 2010;Engle et al. 1999;Kane et al. 2005). Furthermore, WM capacity is predictive of a variety of higher-order abilities including performance on verbal and mathematical aptitude tests in children (Cowan et al. 2005;Gathercole and Pickering 2000) and adults (Cowan et al. 2005;Daneman and Carpenter 1980;Turner and Engle 1989). Working Memory Training BackgroundGiven the crucial role WM plays in everyday functioning, there has been increased interest in whether it can be enhanced by computerized WM training (WMT). Often such training paradigms include participants practicing on simple span, complex span, or n-back tasks that adapt in difficulty and therefore push...

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The current set of studies examined the relationship among working memory capacity, attention control, fluid intelligence, and pupillary correlates of tonic arousal regulation and phasic responsiveness in a combined sample of more than 1,000 participants in two different age ranges (young adults and adolescents). Each study was designed to test predictions made by two recent theories regarding the role of the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system in determining individual differences in cognitive ability. The first theory, proposed by Unsworth and Robison ( 2017a ), posits two important individual differences: the moment-to-moment regulation of tonic arousal, and the phasic responsiveness of the system to goal-relevant stimuli. The second theory, proposed by Tsukahara and Engle ( 2021a ), argues that people with higher cognitive abilities have greater functional connectivity between the LC-NE system and cortical networks at rest. These two theories are not mutually exclusive, but they make different predictions. Overall, we found no evidence consistent with a resting-state theory. However, phasic responsiveness was consistently correlated with working memory capacity, attention control, and fluid intelligence, supporting a prediction made by Unsworth and Robison ( 2017a ). Tonic arousal regulation was not correlated with working memory or fluid intelligence and was inconsistently correlated with attention control, which offers only partial support for Unsworth and Robison’s ( 2017a ) second prediction. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.3758/s13415-023-01096-2.

The current study suggested that previously observed low correlations between performance- and rating-based measures of WM may result from use of performance-based WM measures that do not capture the unique contributions of PM and SM components of WM.