Using outlines derived from a widely used set of line drawings, we created stimuli geared towards the investigation of contour integration and texture segmentation using shapes of everyday objects. Each stimulus consisted of Gabor elements positioned and oriented curvilinearly along the outline of an object, embedded within a larger Gabor array of homogeneous density. We created six versions of the resulting Gaborized outline stimuli by varying the orientations of elements inside and outside the outline. Data from two experiments, in which participants attempted to identify the objects in the stimuli, provide norms for identifiability and name agreement, and show differences in identifiability between stimulus versions. While there was substantial variability between the individual objects in our stimulus set, further analyses suggest a number of stimulus properties which are generally predictive of identification performance. The stimuli and the accompanying normative data, both available on our website (http://www.gestaltrevision.be/sources/gaboroutlines), provide a useful tool to further investigate contour integration and texture segmentation in both normal and clinical populations, especially when top-down influences on these processes, such as the role of prior knowledge of familiar objects, are of main interest.

Purpose To describe a new stereotest in the form of a game on an autostereoscopic tablet computer designed to be suitable for use in the eye clinic and present data on its reliability and the distribution of stereo thresholds in adults. Methods Test stimuli were four dynamic random-dot stereograms, one of which contained a disparate target. Feedback was given after each trial presentation. A Bayesian adaptive staircase adjusted target disparity. Threshold was estimated from the mean of the posterior distribution after 20 responses. Viewing distance was monitored via a forehead sticker viewed by the tablet's front camera, and screen parallax was adjusted dynamically so as to achieve the desired retinal disparity. Results The tablet must be viewed at a distance of greater than ∼35 cm to produce a good depth percept. Log thresholds were roughly normally distributed with a mean of 1.75 log 10 arcsec = 56 arcsec and SD of 0.34 log 10 arcsec = a factor of 2.2. The standard deviation agrees with previous studies, but ASTEROID thresholds are approximately 1.5 times higher than a similar stereotest on stereoscopic 3D TV or on Randot Preschool stereotests. Pearson correlation between successive tests in same observer was 0.80. Bland-Altman 95% limits of reliability were ±0.64 log 10 arcsec = a factor of 4.3, corresponding to an SD of 0.32 log 10 arcsec on individual threshold estimates. This is similar to other stereotests and close to the statistical limit for 20 responses. Conclusions ASTEROID is reliable, easy, and portable and thus well-suited for clinical stereoacuity measurements. Translational Relevance New 3D digital technology means that research-quality psychophysical measurement of stereoacuity is now feasible in the clinic.

Neuropsychological diagnostic tests of visual perception mostly assess high-level processes like object recognition. Object recognition, however, relies on distinct mid-level processes of perceptual organization that are only implicitly tested in classical tests. The Leuven Perceptual Organization Screening Test (L-POST) fills a gap with respect to clinically oriented tests of mid-level visual function. In 15 online subtests, a range of mid-level processes are covered, such as figure-ground segmentation, local and global processing, and shape perception. We also test the sensitivity to a wide variety of perceptual grouping cues, like common fate, collinearity, proximity, and closure. To reduce cognitive load, a matching-to-sample task is used for all subtests. Our online test can be administered in 20-45 min and is freely available at www.gestaltrevision.be/tests . The online implementation enables us to offer a separate interface for researchers and clinicians to have immediate access to the raw and summary results for each patient and to keep a record of their patient's entire data. Also, each patient's results can be flexibly compared with a range of age-matched norm samples. In conclusion, the L-POST is a valuable screening test for perceptual organization. The test allows clinicians to screen for deficits in visual perception and enables researchers to get a broader overview of mid-level visual processes that are preserved or disrupted in a given patient.

PurposeIt has been repeatedly shown that the TNO stereotest overestimates stereo threshold compared to other clinical stereotests. In the current study, we test whether this overestimation can be attributed to a distinction between ‘global’ (or ‘cyclopean’) and ‘local’ (feature or contour‐based) stereopsis.MethodsWe compared stereo thresholds of a global (TNO) and a local clinical stereotest (Randot Circles). In addition, a global and a local psychophysical stereotest were added to the design. One hundred and forty‐nine children between 4 and 16 years old were included in the study.ResultsStereo threshold estimates with TNO were a factor of two higher than with any of the other stereotests. No significant differences were found between the other tests. Bland‐Altman analyses also indicated low agreement between TNO and the other stereotests, especially for higher stereo threshold estimates. Simulations indicated that the TNO test protocol and test disparities can account for part of this effect.DiscussionThe results indicate that the global – local distinction is an unlikely explanation for the overestimated thresholds of TNO. Test protocol and disparities are one contributing factor. Potential additional factors include the nature of the task (TNO requires depth discrimination rather than detection) and the use of anaglyph red/green 3D glasses rather than polarizing filters, which may reduce binocular fusion.

New forms of stereoscopic 3-D technology offer vision scientists new opportunities for research, but also come with distinct problems. Here we consider autostereo displays where the two eyes' images are spatially interleaved in alternating columns of pixels and no glasses or special optics are required. Column-interleaved displays produce an excellent stereoscopic effect, but subtle changes in the angle of view can increase cross talk or even interchange the left and right eyes' images. This creates several challenges to the presentation of cyclopean stereograms (containing structure which is only detectable by binocular vision). We discuss the potential artifacts, including one that is unique to column-interleaved displays, whereby scene elements such as dots in a random-dot stereogram appear wider or narrower depending on the sign of their disparity. We derive an algorithm for creating stimuli which are free from this artifact. We show that this and other artifacts can be avoided by (a) using a task which is robust to disparity-sign inversion—for example, a disparity-detection rather than discrimination task—(b) using our proposed algorithm to ensure that parallax is applied symmetrically on the column-interleaved display, and (c) using a dynamic stimulus to avoid monocular artifacts from motion parallax. In order to test our recommendations, we performed two experiments using a stereoacuity task implemented with a parallax-barrier tablet. Our results confirm that these recommendations eliminate the artifacts. We believe that these recommendations will be useful to vision scientists interested in running stereo psychophysics experiments using parallax-barrier and other column-interleaved digital displays.

Aim To investigate the underlying factor structure of the 46‐item Flemish cerebral visual impairment (CVI) questionnaire, differentiate the factor scores of children with and without CVI, and examine the impact of comorbidities on factor scores. Method The records of 630 children (386 males, 244 females; median age 77mo; interquartile range 63–98mo) who visited the CVI clinic and the Centre for Developmental Disabilities at the University Hospitals of Leuven from 2001 to 2018 were reviewed systematically. Inclusion criteria included an up‐to‐date questionnaire, a definitive diagnosis, and clinical assessment. Results Three hundred and forty‐five children (179 with CVI [108 males, 71 females; median age 74mo; interquartile range 61–93mo] and 166 without CVI [110 males, 56 females; median age 88mo; interquartile range 70–107mo]) were included. An exploratory factor analysis resulted in a 5‐factor (object and face processing impairments; visual (dis)interest; clutter and distance viewing impairments; moving in space impairments; and anxiety‐related behaviours) biologically and clinically plausible model, which retained 35 items and explained 56% of the total variance. Mann–Whitney U tests indicated that factors 1 to 4 were significantly higher in children with CVI compared to children without CVI (p‐values ranged from p<0.001 to p<0.05; effect sizes ranged from 0.11 to 0.33); factor 5 showed no differences. Autism, developmental coordination disorder, epilepsy, and cerebral palsy impacted factor scores. Interpretation A 5‐factor structure of the Flemish CVI questionnaire differentiates children with and without CVI. Comorbidities should be accounted for when researching CVI. What this paper adds Cerebral visual impairment (CVI) is characterized by impaired object and face processing and impaired visual interest. CVI is also characterized by impaired clutter and distance viewing, and impaired moving in space. All children (with or without CVI) demonstrated anxiety‐related behaviours. Autism affected object/face processing, whereas developmental coordination disorder, epilepsy, and cerebral palsy affected visual interest.

Aim To evaluate the reliability and validity of the Children's Visual Impairment Test for 3‐ to 6‐year‐olds (CVIT 3–6). Method Reliability was assessed via test–retest correlation and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) in typically developing children, children with cerebral visual impairment (CVI), intellectual impairment, and simulated impaired vision (validation groups n=59, mean developmental age=4y 10mo, 27 females, 32 males). Internal validity was evaluated with a confirmatory factor analysis on the normative sample (n=301, median age=4y 8mo, SD=9.7mo, 148 females, 153 males). External validity was assessed by correlating performance on CVIT 3–6 with L94, the Beery‐Buktenica Developmental Test of Visuo‐Motor Integration (Beery‐VMI), the Freiburg Vision Test, the revised Snijders‐Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test for children between 2 years 6 months and 7‐years‐old (SON‐R 2.5–7), and the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) questionnaire and by comparing performance between validation groups. Results We observed very good test–retest reliability (r=0.82, p<0.001, ICC=0.80) and confirmed the hypothesized factor structure (comparative fit index=1; Tucker‐Lewis index=1.045). We found high correlations with tests with a strong visual perception component (L94: r=0.74, p<0.001; SON‐R 2.5–7: r=0.37, p=0.01) and low correlations with other tests (Beery‐VMI: r=0.25, p=0.09; SRS: r=0–0.26, p=0.09). Lowest scores were observed for children with CVI compared to the other validation groups (F[3,44]=5.1, p=0.003). Interpretation CVIT 3–6 is grounded in knowledge of visual perception. The tool specifically measures CVI‐related visual perception deficits and is not mediated by intellectual abilities or low visual acuity. What the paper adds Evidence for good test–retest reliability of the Children's Visual Impairment Test for 3‐ to 6‐year‐olds (CVIT 3–6). Factor structure of normative data reflects CVIT 3–6's foundations in vision science. CVIT 3–6 specifically measures visual perception impairments. CVIT 3–6 performance is not influenced by intelligence or low visual acuity.

A vast literature exists on human biological motion perception in impoverished displays, e.g., point-light walkers. Less is known about the perception of impoverished biological motion displays in macaques. We trained 3 macaques in the discrimination of facing direction (left versus right) and forward versus backward walking using motion-capture-based locomotion displays (treadmill walking) in which the body features were represented by cylinder-like primitives. The displays did not contain translatory motion. Discriminating forward versus backward locomotion requires motion information while the facing-direction/view task can be solved using motion and/or form. All monkeys required lengthy training to learn the forward-backward task, while the view task was learned more quickly. Once acquired, the discriminations were specific to walking and stimulus format but generalized across actors. Although the view task could be solved using form cues, there was a small impact of motion. Performance in the forward-backward task was highly susceptible to degradations of spatiotemporal stimulus coherence and motion information. These results indicate that rhesus monkeys require extensive training in order to use the intrinsic motion cues related to forward versus backward locomotion and imply that extrapolation of observations concerning human perception of impoverished biological motion displays onto monkey perception needs to be made cautiously.