Here, we show that commensal bacteria can stimulate intestinal epithelial cells to secrete insulin in response to glucose. Commensal strains were engineered to secrete the insulinotropic proteins GLP-1 and PDX-1. Epithelia stimulated by engineered strains and glucose secreted up to 1 ng ml ؊1 of insulin with no significant background secretion.

Dye-encapsulating liposomes can serve as signaling reagents in biosensors and biochemical assays in place of enzymes or fluorophores. Detailed here is the use and preparation of streptavidin-coupled liposomes which offer a universal approach to biotinylated target detection. The universal approach provides two advantages, i.e. only one type of liposome is necessary despite varying target and probe sequences and the hybridization event can take place in the absence of potential steric hindrance occurring from liposomes directly conjugated to probes. One objective of this work was to optimize the one-step conjugation of SRB-encapsulating liposomes to streptavidin using EDC. Liposome, EDC, streptavidin concentrations, and reaction times were varied. The optimal coupling conditions were found to be an EDC:carboxylated lipid:streptavidin molar ratio of 600:120:1 and a reaction time of 15 min. The second goal was to utilize these liposomes in sandwich hybridization microtiter plate-based assays using biotinylated reported probes as biorecognition elements. The assay was optimized in terms of probe spacer length, probe concentration, liposome concentration, and streptavidin coverage. Subsequently, the optimized protocol was applied to the detection of DNA and RNA sequences. A detection limit of 1.7 pmol L(-1) and an assay range spanning four orders of magnitude (5 pmol L(-1)-50 nmol L(-1)) with a coefficient of variation