OBJECTIVE: One of the primary objectives of Brazil’s conditional cash transfer program, Bolsa Família, is to break the intergenerational transmission of poverty by improving human capital via conditionalities. In this study, we hypothesized that health indicators of Bolsa Família participants would be comparable to those of other local children who were nonparticipants after two years of follow-up in the city of Acrelândia, Acre state, Western Brazilian Amazon. METHODS: Data from a population-based longitudinal study were analyzed to examine school enrollment, vaccination coverage, height and body mass index for age z-scores, and biomarkers of micronutrient deficiencies (iron and vitamin A) between Bolsa Família participants (n = 325) and nonparticipants (n = 738). RESULTS: Out of 1063 children 10 years and younger included in the 2007 baseline survey, 805 had anthropometric measurements and 402 had biochemical indicators in the 2009 follow-up survey. Prevalence rate ratio (PRR) for non-enrollment in school at 4 years of age was 0.58 (95%CI: 0.34–1.02) when comparing Bolsa Família participants with nonparticipants. No difference was found for vaccination coverage, which was insufficient for most vaccine-preventable diseases. Bolsa Família participants were less likely to show a positive change in body mass index for age z-scores compared with nonparticipants (PRR = 0.81, 95%CI: 0.70–0.95), while a positive change in height for age z-scores was similar in the groups. No differences in micronutrient deficiencies were found between groups after 2 years. CONCLUSIONS: Early school enrollment and consistent nutritional indicators between Bolsa Família participants and nonparticipants suggest Bolsa Família was facilitating similarities between groups over time.

Background: Gender differences in late middle-age cognitive performance may be explained by differences in educational or occupational attainment rates, or gender-patterned returns of similar education and occupation to cognitive reserve. We tested these competing hypotheses in the historically highly gender unequal context of South Korea. Methods: Data came from the 2006 wave of the Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging. We included adults aged 45–65 years. Using quantile regression decompositions, we decomposed cognitive performance differences across quantiles into differences due to rates of educational and occupational attainment and differences due to divergent returns to those characteristics. Results: Gender-based cognitive performance differences across deciles were driven by differences in rates of educational and occupational attainment, while the returns to these characteristics were similar for both genders. Conclusions: Findings suggest that educational and occupational characteristics contribute to cognitive performance similarly in men and women, but discordant rates of these characteristics contribute to performance gaps.

Objectives Childhood socioeconomic disadvantage is consistently associated with lower cognitive function in later life. This study aims to distinguish the contribution of specific aspects of childhood socioeconomic disadvantage for memory performance in mid-to-late adulthood, with consideration for direct and indirect effects through education and occupation. Methods Data were from adults aged 50-80 years who completed the life history module in the 2006/07 wave of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (n=4,553). The outcome, memory score, was based on word recall tests (range: 0-20 points). We used the g-formula to estimate direct and indirect effects of a composite variable for childhood socioeconomic disadvantage, and its four individual components: lower-skilled occupation of the primary breadwinner, having few books in the home, overcrowding in the home, and lack of water and heating facilities in the home. Results Few books were the most consequential component of childhood socioeconomic disadvantage for later life memory (total effect: ⎼0.82 points for few books; 95% CI: ⎼1.04, ⎼0.60), with roughly half being a direct effect. The total effect of a breadwinner in lower-skilled occupations was smaller but not significantly different from few books (⎼0.67 points; 95% CI: ⎼0.88, ⎼0.46), while it was significantly smaller with overcrowding (⎼0.31 points; 95% CI: ⎼0.56, ⎼0.06). The latter two total effects were mostly mediated by education and occupation. Discussion A literate environment in the childhood home may have lasting direct effects on memory function in mid-to-later life, while parental occupation and overcrowding appear to influence memory primarily through educational and occupational pathways.

Background Limited workplace control, an important dimension of job strain, can reduce occupational opportunities for problem solving and learning. Women may have fewer professional resources to mitigate effects of low control, while conversely, gender-role norms may moderate the influence of occupational psychosocial risk factors. We therefore examined whether the links between control and cognitive function were similarly gendered. Methods This observational, longitudinal study included respondents of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe who were aged 50–64 years at entry, employed and provided at least two measurements of control and cognition (n = 6697). Relationships between control and cognition, quantified with standardized scores from verbal fluency, immediate and delayed word recall tests, were explored using linear fixed-effect and random-effect models with gender interactions. Results Consistent trends of improved verbal fluency performance with high control were evident across analyses, equal to producing around three-quarters of a word more under high control conditions, with an effect size ∼0.1 SD units (fully adjusted models, range 0.077–0.104 SD), although associations with recall tests were inconsistent. We did not find evidence of clear gender differences in control–cognition relationships for any of the cognitive domains. Conclusions The cognitive health of older European workers may benefit from improved workplace control irrespective of gender. Possible sources of bias that could explain the lack of gender differences are discussed, particularly gender differences in labour force participation, response behaviour in job control ratings and implications of gender-role norms on the importance of occupational risk factors.

IntroductionThe health benefits of marriage have been widely documented and, to a lesser extent, the effects of marital quality. Marital relationships may be particularly relevant to the health of older adults. This study explores the associations of marital status and marital quality with average glycemic levels in older adults using longitudinal data.Research design and methodsOur sample consisted of adults aged 50–89 years without previously diagnosed diabetes from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (n=3335). We used biomarker data from waves 2 (2004/2005), 4 (2008/2009) and 6 (2012/2013) to analyze changes in hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels within individuals in relation to their marital indicators (marital status, social support from spouse, and social strain from spouse) over time using linear fixed effect models.ResultsWe found that being married was associated with lower HbA1c values (β: −0.21%; 95% CI −0.31% to −0.10%) among adults without pre-existing diabetes. Spousal support and spousal strain were generally not associated with HbA1c values.ConclusionsIt seems that marital relationships, regardless of the quality of the relationship, are associated with lower HbA1c values for male and female adults aged over 50 years.

Earlier research suggests that educational attainment up to early adulthood are crucial for the development of cognitive reserve, while intellectually stimulating activities later in the life course are of limited impact. We sought to explore the effects of educational attainment and occupational factors (occupation type and currently having work) across the distribution of cognitive performance for adults aged 45-65 years in South Korea. We analysed scores from the Korean Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE) provided in the 2006 wave of the Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging. We used quantile regressions to both investigate relationships across the distribution and to reduce bias for measures of the central tendency as the MMSE is known for its ceiling effects. The quantile function at the lowest conditional decile of MMSE scores suggested that education level was the dominant significant factor for adult performance on the MMSE (lowest MMSE decile, primary education: β = 6.11 points, p < 0.001; secondary education β = 9.56 points, p < 0.001). All occupational factors were non-significant. Further factors with a significant association with the MMSE were hearing loss, the log-transformed household income, and age squared. With the conditional median function, occupational factors became significant in the middle of the distribution but remained much less important than education levels. In summary, educational levels were more important to explain variation in cognitive functioning than occupational factors, echoing studies with Western samples. We discuss the findings with regard to the historically gender unequal educational and occupational opportunities in Korea.