Childhood temperament and family environment have been shown to predict internalizing and externalizing behavior; however, less is known about how temperament and family environment interact to predict changes in problem behavior. We conducted latent growth curve modeling on a sample assessed at ages 5, 7, 10, 14, and 17 (N = 337). Externalizing behavior decreased over time for both sexes, and internalizing behavior increased over time for girls only. Two childhood variables (fear/shyness and maternal depression) predicted boys' and girls' age-17 internalizing behavior, harsh discipline uniquely predicted boys' age-17 internalizing behavior, and maternal depression and lower family income uniquely predicted increases in girls' internalizing behavior. For externalizing behavior, an array of temperament, family environment, and Temperament x Family Environment variables predicted age-17 behavior for both sexes. Sex differences were present in the prediction of externalizing slopes, with maternal depression predicting increases in boys' externalizing behavior only when impulsivity was low, and harsh discipline predicting increases in girls' externalizing behavior only when impulsivity was high or when fear/shyness was low. Keywordsexternalizing; internalizing; temperament; family environment; sex differences Childhood Temperament and Family Environment as Predictors of Internalizing and Externalizing Trajectories from Age 5 to Age 17Understanding how child characteristics and the family environment relate to increases and decreases in problem behavior across childhood and adolescence is of key interest to developmental and clinical psychologists. One avenue to expand such knowledge is to examine the link between specific child characteristics and specific problem behaviors. Several studies have shown that family environmental factors might moderate the relationship between specific child temperamental characteristics and child internalizing and externalizing behavior (Bates, Pettit, Dodge, & Ridge, 1998;Morris et al., 2002;Stoolmiller, 2001). However, knowledge about the unique and interactive effects of temperamental characteristics and family environment on change in internalizing and externalizing behavior from early childhood to late adolescence is limited. Further, we know little about whether boys and girls follow similar patterns of change and prediction. In this article, we examine the role of boys' and girls' impulsivity, fear/shyness, and family environment at age 5 on the development of internalizing and externalizing behavior through late adolescence.Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Leslie Leve, Oregon Social Learning Center, 160 East 4 th Avenue, Eugene, OR 97401-2426. E-mail: lesliel@oslc.org. Developmental trajectories-Epidemiological and community-based studies suggest that internalizing behavior is relatively stable across childhood, but increases somewhat during adolescence (Bongers, Koot, van der Ende, & Verhulst, 2003;Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002). There is a...

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Objectives-Up to 90% of child welfare system cases involve multiple types of maltreatment; however, studies have rarely incorporated multiple dimensions of maltreatment. The present study employed a latent profile analysis to identify naturally occurring subgroups of children who had experienced maltreatment.Methods-Reports of maltreatment incidents for 117 preschool-aged foster children were classified along two dimensions: type (e.g., physical abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, supervisory neglect, or emotional maltreatment) and severity within type.Results-The analyses revealed four distinct profiles showing moderate to high levels of maltreatment: (a) supervisory neglect/emotional maltreatment, (b) sexual abuse/emotional maltreatment/neglect (both supervisory and physical), (c) physical abuse/emotional maltreatment/ neglect, and (d) sexual abuse/physical abuse/emotional maltreatment/neglect. Profile membership was examined with respect to the children's cognitive functioning and externalizing and internalizing problems: lower cognitive functioning was related to profiles with neglect or physical abuse (or both), externalizing was highest in the sexual abuse/physical abuse/emotional maltreatment/neglect profile, and internalizing was highest in the profiles with physical or sexual abuse (or both).Conclusions-There appear to be distinct profiles of maltreatment among preschoolers that have differential associations to measures of adjustment. Policy and practice implications and future research directions are discussed.Practice Implications-Using different profiles of maltreatment to understand specific vulnerabilities may guide in tailoring interventions to the needs of maltreated children. Keywords maltreatment; classification; latent profile analysis; outcomesChild maltreatment is associated with a wide range of negative outcomes, including high rates of cognitive, emotional, and psychosocial impairment (Bolger & Patterson, 2001;Bolger, Patterson, & Kupersmidt, 1998;English et al., 2005;Manly, Cicchetti, & Barnett, 1994). Traditionally, there have been two major approaches to studying the effects of maltreatment. The first approach has involved the study of maltreated children using samples from populations such as the child welfare system, in which some form of maltreatment is likely to have occurred, without differentiating among the subtypes or severity of maltreatment (Main & George, 1985;Oates, Forrest & Peacock, 1985). This work has provided a critical evidence base documenting the overarching negative effects of maltreatment. The other approach has Reprint requests should be addressed to the corresponding author, Dr. Katherine C. Pears: Oregon Social Learning Center, 10 Shelton McMurphey Boulevard, Eugene, OR 97401, Phone: (541) 485-2711, Fax: (541) 485-7087, E-mail: katherinep@oslc.org. NIH Public Access Author ManuscriptChild Abuse Negl. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009 October 1. Published in final edited form as:Child Abuse Negl. 2008 October ; 32(10): 958-971. doi:10.1016/j...

Maltreated foster children are subjected to a range of early adverse experiences, including neglect, abuse, and multiple caregiver disruptions. Research suggests that such disturbances alter the development and subsequent functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system. The current study was designed to investigate morning cortisol levels in 117 foster children and 60 low-income, nonmaltreated children. Maltreatment and foster care placement experiences were coded from official records. Analyses revealed that the foster children were significantly more likely than the nonmaltreated children to have low morning cortisol levels. Additionally, specific maltreatment experiences were significantly associated with the foster children's morning cortisol levels. Foster children with low morning cortisol levels experienced more severe physical neglect than the other foster children. In contrast, foster children with high morning cortisol levels experienced more severe emotional maltreatment. These results suggest that specific early adverse experiences have differential effects on the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenocortical system. Keywords cortisol; preschool-aged children; foster care; physical neglect; emotional maltreatmentIn the United States, there are 513,000 children in foster care and 311,000 children enter foster care each year (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2006). Foster children are exposed to a host of early adverse experiences, including neglectful and/or abusive care and repeated caregiver disruptions. It is not surprising, therefore, that numerous studies have found foster children to be an exceptionally high-risk group. Foster children exhibit physical, cognitive, and socioemotional disparities compared to their peers (Leslie, Gordon, Ganger, & Gist, 2002;Pears & Fisher, 2005;Zima et al., 2000). These children are also at risk for anxiety disorders, affective disorders, and disruptive behavior disorders (Casey Family Programs, 2005;Clausen, Landsverk, Ganger, Chadwick, & Litrownik, Contact information for corresponding author: Jacqueline Bruce, Oregon Social Learning Center, 10 Shelton McMurphey Boulevard, Eugene, OR, 97401-4928, Phone: 541-485-2711, Fax: 541-485-7087. * Dr. Levine is now deceased. NIH Public Access Author ManuscriptDev Psychobiol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 January 1. Garland et al., 2001). Although there is considerable evidence of negative outcomes among foster children, little is known about the biological mechanisms underlying the association between early adverse experiences and later maladaptation in this population. Moreover, there is limited research examining the differential impact of specific dimensions of early adverse experiences on these mechanisms. The current study was aimed at examining the impact of maltreatment and foster care placement experiences on one possible biological mechanism, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system.The HPA system serves two distinct functions: maintaining t...

Although young children in foster care are at high risk for developmental delays and subsequent academic, social, and behavioral difficulties, many do not receive services for delays. We sought to explicate the types of developmental delays observed in young children (ages 3-6 years) in foster care and how placement and maltreatment experiences for these children were associated with such delays. Physical growth, neuropsychological functioning, executive functioning, language, and general cognitive functioning were compared for a sample of 99 foster children and 54 nonmaltreated, same-aged children from comparable socioeconomic status backgrounds. The foster children showed developmental lags on measures of height, head circumference, visuospatial functioning, language, and general cognitive functioning. A history of neglect was negatively associated with functioning in a number of domains; surprisingly, the number of maltreatment types experienced was positively associated with functioning. Placement history was generally not associated with scores in the various developmental domains. We discuss the need to screen and evaluate preschoolers and possible methods for doing so.

Young children in foster care are exposed to high levels of stress. These experiences place foster children at risk for poor social, academic, and mental heath outcomes. The role of adverse events in stimulating neurobiological stress responses presumably plays a role in shaping neural systems that contribute to these problems. Systematic and developmentally well-timed interventions might have the potential to change developmental trajectories and promote resilience. Moreover, understanding how specific dimensions of early adversity affect underlying stress response systems and how alterations in these systems are related to later psychosocial outcomes might facilitate more precise and targeted interventions. Data are drawn from two ongoing randomized trials involving foster infants/toddlers and preschoolers. Consistent with prior animal models of early adversity, these studies have shown that early adversity-particularly neglect, younger age at first foster placement, and higher number of placements-is associated with altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function. The interventions under investigation have produced evidence that it is possible to impact many areas that have been negatively affected by early stress, including HPA axis activity, behavior, and attachment to caregivers.

Preschool-aged foster children face multiple risks for poor long-term outcomes. These risks appear to increase with the number of placement changes experienced. The Early Intervention Foster Care Program (EIFC) targets the spectrum of challenges that preschool-aged foster children face via a team approach delivered in home and community settings. In this article, we report on permanent placement outcomes from the EIFC randomized clinical trial. Children in EIFC had significantly fewer failed permanent placements than children in the regular foster care comparison condition. The number of prior placements was positively associated with the risk of failed permanent placements for children in the comparison condition but not for children in EIFC. Type of prior maltreatment did not predict permanent placement outcomes. These results provide the foundation of an evidence base for the EIFC program as a preventive intervention to improve permanent placement outcomes for preschool-aged foster children.

Children in foster care are at heightened risk for poor psychosocial outcomes. This study examined differences in two areas that may be associated with many of these outcomes, emotion understanding and theory of mind, using a sample of 3-to 5-year-old maltreated foster children~n ϭ 60! and a comparison group of same-aged, low-income, nonmaltreated children living with their biological families~n ϭ 31!. Being in foster care was significantly associated with worse emotion understanding and theory of mind capabilities, even when accounting for age, intelligence, and executive function. There were no significant associations between length of time in foster care, number of transitions, and emotion understanding and theory of mind. Results help to expand knowledge about the cognitive and affective deficits of children in foster care and suggest that interventions targeted at these deficits include an emphasis on emotion understanding and theory of mind.