In higher education, personal epistemology is today a significant research area. PE has been seen as promising particularly because it focuses on one of the general learning aims of many contemporary universities, namely, the development of students' creative and critical thinking. The article identifies serious conceptual problems in the theoretical framework of PE. Firstly, we arguecontrary to many promoters of PE-that PE's theoretical models are not based merely on empirical data from developmental psychology, but clearly feature normative philosophical elements. Secondly, we consider the acceptance of relativism in the theoretical framework of PE. We argue that the concept of fallibilism has been overlooked, which has forced PE theorists to choose between naïve realism and relativism. Their choice of relativism has ledin addition to other philosophical problemsto a loss of adequate definitions for the epistemological notions of objectivity and certainty. The recognition of epistemological fallibilism would be beneficial both to PE's theoretical framework and to PE-based university pedagogy.

The rise of evidence-based policy-making has created pressures on the evaluation activities of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). In tandem with the demands from outside, NGOs themselves have improved their evaluation activities due to their own desire to learn. This article was motivated by the reflections of Finnish development NGOs on their need to elaborate new approaches. The NGOs have particularly searched for alternatives to the Logical Framework Approach (LFA), as they have found its measurability demands not to be applicable to their work. This article considers the possibilities of realistic evaluation providing a potential alternative approach. The attempt of realistic evaluation to integrate the concept of mechanism into the identification of programme theory increases the depth of the analysis. In addition, we suggest that the value dimension in NGOs' work should be taken into account as a part of realistic evaluation.

This article develops a theoretical framework for analyzing adult learning in projects aiming to strengthen citizenship implemented by nongovernmental organizations, especially in the contexts of sub-Saharan Africa. On the basis of a review of international development research, we suggest that a new framework should address the need for a conceptualization of learning as a gradual process and for capturing the gap between ideal models and everyday experiences of citizenship. We argue, building on John Dewey’s philosophy, for a framework of growth into citizenship, and introduce the notions of learning as reorganization of habits and the method of democracy as an avenue for learning as novel contributions to this field.

In this article I consider contemporary philosophical conceptions of human nature from the point of view of the ideal of gender equality. My main argument is that an essentialist account of human nature, unlike what I take to be its two main alternatives (the subjectivist account and the cultural account), is able coherently to justify the educational pursuit of this ideal. By essentialism I refer to the idea that there are some features common to all human beings (independent of individual, cultural and historical factors) that are conducive to a good life and human flourishing. I also consider the main philosophical challenge of essentialism, the naturalistic fallacy, and the ways in which contemporary versions of essentialism might escape this charge.