Connexin36 (Cx36) is the major gap junction forming protein in the brain and the retina; thus, alterations in its expression indicate changes in the corresponding circuitry. Many structural changes occur in the early postnatal retina before functional neuronal circuits are finalized, including those that incorporate gap junctions. To reveal the time-lapse formation of inner retinal gap junctions, we examine the developing postnatal rat retina from birth (P0) to young adult age (P20) and follow the expression of Cx36 in the mRNA and protein levels. We found a continuous elevation in the expression of both the Cx36 transcript and protein between P0 and P20 and a somewhat delayed Cx36 plaque formation throughout the inner plexiform layer (IPL) starting at P10. By using tristratificated calretinin positive (CaR(+)) fibers in the IPL as a guide, we detected a clear preference of Cx36 plaques for the ON sublamina from the earliest time of detection. This distributional preference became more pronounced at P15 and P20 due to the emergence and widespread expression of large (>0.1 μm(2)) Cx36 plaques in the ON sublamina. Finally, we showed that parvalbumin-positive (PV(+)) AII amacrine cell dendrites colocalize with Cx36 plaques as early as P10 in strata 3 and 4, whereas colocalizations in stratum 5 became characteristic only around P20. We conclude that Cx36 expression in the rat IPL displays a characteristic succession of changes during retinogenesis reflecting the formation of the underlying electrical synaptic circuitry. In particular, AII cell gap junctions, first formed with ON cone bipolar cells and later with other AII amacrine cells, accounted for the observed Cx36 expressional changes.
Blue Light Using flavin (BLUf) domains are increasingly being adopted for use in optogenetic constructs. Despite this, much remains to be resolved on the mechanism of their activation. The advent of unnatural amino acid mutagenesis opens up a new toolbox for the study of protein structural dynamics. The tryptophan analogue, 7-aza-Trp (7AW) was incorporated in the BLUF domain of the Activation of Photopigment and pucA (AppA) photoreceptor in order to investigate the functional dynamics of the crucial W104 residue during photoactivation of the protein. The 7-aza modification to Trp makes selective excitation possible using 310 nm excitation and 380 nm emission, separating the signals of interest from other Trp and Tyr residues. We used Förster energy transfer (FRET) between 7AW and the flavin to estimate the distance between Trp and flavin in both the light-and darkadapted states in solution. Nanosecond fluorescence anisotropy decay and picosecond fluorescence lifetime measurements for the flavin revealed a rather dynamic picture for the tryptophan residue. In the dark-adapted state, the major population of W104 is pointing away from the flavin and can move freely, in contrast to previous results reported in the literature. Upon blue-light excitation, the dominant tryptophan population is reorganized, moves closer to the flavin occupying a rigidly bound state participating in the hydrogen-bond network around the flavin molecule. Flavins are found in more than 370 enzymes 1 but only a few of them are photoactive 2,3. Three major families of photoreceptors which utilize flavin as a cofactor and whose functions are triggered by absorption of light are the photolyase/cryptochromes, the light oxygen voltage (LOV) domains and the blue light sensors using flavin (BLUF) proteins. Their photochemistry, though is rather diverse. In photolyases and cryptochromes, FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is reduced via electron transfer through a tryptophan triad 4-6. Photolyases use light to repair UV-damaged DNA 7 whereas the proposed functions of cryptochromes range from setting the circadian clock in insects to sensing the weak magnetic field of Earth in migrating birds 6. In the LOV domains, the flavin cofactor is excited to a triplet state upon blue light absorption, followed by formation of a signalling state, characterized by a covalent bond between the flavin and a nearby cysteine residue, leading to the enhancement of the phototropin kinase activity 3. In BLUF domains, blue light excitation results in a signalling state (light-adapted state) that is characterized by a reorganization of the hydrogen bond network around FAD and the Tyr-Gln-Trp (Met) tetrad (Fig. 1). This is revealed by a characteristic 10-15 nm red-shift of the first π → π* transition and a 20 cm −1 downshift of the flavin C4=O stretching vibration compared to the dark-adapted state 8,9. In AppA BLUF , site directed mutagenesis has shown that Y21 and Q63 play a crucial role during photoactivation as the red shift upon illumination disappears if one of these r...
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.
hi@scite.ai
10624 S. Eastern Ave., Ste. A-614
Henderson, NV 89052, USA
Copyright © 2024 scite LLC. All rights reserved.
Made with 💙 for researchers
Part of the Research Solutions Family.