Pal et al. describe a two-step process determining removal of the cilia-localized GPCR, Gpr161, upon sonic hedgehog signaling. First, β-arrestins are recruited by the signaling-competent receptor in a smoothened-dependent manner. Second, clathrin-mediated endocytosis outside of the ciliary compartment coordinates removal.

The primary cilium has been found to be associated with a number of cellular signaling pathways, such as vertebrate hedgehog signaling, and implicated in the pathogenesis of diseases affecting multiple organs, including the neural tube, kidney, and brain. The primary cilium is the site where a subset of the cell's membrane proteins is enriched. However, pathways that target and concentrate membrane proteins in cilia are not well understood. Processes determining the level of proteins in the ciliary membrane include entry into the compartment, removal, and retention by diffusion barriers such as the transition zone. Proteins that are concentrated in the ciliary membrane are also localized to other cellular sites. Thus it is critical to determine the particular role for ciliary compartmentalization in sensory reception and signaling pathways. Here we provide a brief overview of our current understanding of compartmentalization of proteins in the ciliary membrane and the dynamics of trafficking into and out of the cilium. We also discuss major unanswered questions regarding the role that defects in ciliary compartmentalization might play in disease pathogenesis. Understanding the trafficking mechanisms that underlie the role of ciliary compartmentalization in signaling might provide unique approaches for intervention in progressive ciliopathies.

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are typically present in a basal, inactive state, but when bound to agonist they activate downstream signaling cascades. In studying arrestin regulation of opioid receptors in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons, we find that agonists of delta opioid receptors (δORs) activate cofilin through Rho-associated coiled-coiled containing protein kinase (ROCK), LIM domain kinase (LIMK) and β- arrestin 1 (β-arr1), to regulate actin polymerization. This controls receptor function, as assessed by agonist-induced inhibition of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels in DRGs. Agonists of opioid-receptor like receptors (ORL1) similarly influence the function of this receptor through ROCK, LIMK and β-arr1. Functional evidence of this cascade was demonstrated in vivo where the behavioral effects of δOR or ORL1 agonists were enhanced in the absence of β-arr1 or prevented by inhibiting ROCK. This pathway allows δOR and ORL1 agonists to rapidly regulate receptor function.

Alternaria alternata is a fungal allergen associated with severe asthma and asthma exacerbations. Similarly to other asthma-associated allergens, Alternaria secretes a serine-like trypsin protease(s) that is thought to act through the G protein-coupled receptor protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) to induce asthma symptoms. However, specific mechanisms underlying Alternaria-induced PAR2 activation and signaling remain ill-defined. We sought to determine whether Alternaria-induced PAR2 signaling contributed to asthma symptoms via a PAR2/β-arrestin signaling axis, identify the protease activity responsible for PAR2 signaling, and determine whether protease activity was sufficient for Alternaria-induced asthma symptoms in animal models. We initially used in vitro models to demonstrate Alternaria-induced PAR2/β-arrestin-2 signaling. Alternaria filtrates were then used to sensitize and challenge wild-type, PAR2−/− and β-arrestin-2−/− mice in vivo. Intranasal administration of Alternaria filtrate resulted in a protease-dependent increase of airway inflammation and mucin production in wild-type but not PAR2−/− or β-arrestin-2−/− mice. Protease was isolated from Alternaria preparations, and select in vitro and in vivo experiments were repeated to evaluate sufficiency of the isolated Alternaria protease to induce asthma phenotype. Administration of a single isolated serine protease from Alternaria, Alternaria alkaline serine protease (AASP), was sufficient to fully activate PAR2 signaling and induce β-arrestin-2−/−-dependent eosinophil and lymphocyte recruitment in vivo. In conclusion, Alternaria filtrates induce airway inflammation and mucus hyperplasia largely via AASP using the PAR2/β-arrestin signaling axis. Thus, β-arrestin-biased PAR2 antagonists represent novel therapeutic targets for treating aeroallergen-induced asthma.

Abstract Megakaryocytes (MKs), the precursor cells for platelets, migrate from the endosteal niche of the bone marrow (BM) toward the vasculature, extending proplatelets into sinusoids, where circulating blood progressively fragments them into platelets. Nonmuscle myosin IIA (NMIIA) heavy chain gene (MYH9) mutations cause macrothrombocytopenia characterized by fewer platelets with larger sizes leading to clotting disorders termed myosin-9–related disorders (MYH9-RDs). MYH9-RD patient MKs have proplatelets with thicker and fewer branches that produce fewer and larger proplatelets, which is phenocopied in mouse Myh9-RD models. Defective proplatelet formation is considered to be the principal mechanism underlying the macrothrombocytopenia phenotype. However, MYH9-RD patient MKs may have other defects, as NMII interactions with actin filaments regulate physiological processes such as chemotaxis, cell migration, and adhesion. How MYH9-RD mutations affect MK migration and adhesion in BM or NMIIA activity and assembly prior to proplatelet production remain unanswered. NMIIA is the only NMII isoform expressed in mature MKs, permitting exploration of these questions without complicating effects of other NMII isoforms. Using mouse models of MYH9-RD (NMIIAR702C+/−GFP+/−, NMIIAD1424N+/−, and NMIIAE1841K+/−) and in vitro assays, we investigated MK distribution in BM, chemotaxis toward stromal-derived factor 1, NMIIA activity, and bipolar filament assembly. Results indicate that different MYH9-RD mutations suppressed MK migration in the BM without compromising bipolar filament formation but led to divergent adhesion phenotypes and NMIIA contractile activities depending on the mutation. We conclude that MYH9-RD mutations impair MK chemotaxis by multiple mechanisms to disrupt migration toward the vasculature, impairing proplatelet release and causing macrothrombocytopenia.

The ventral neural tube in vertebrates is patterned by a gradient of sonic hedgehog (Shh) secreted from the notochord and floor plate. Forward genetic screens first pointed to the role of the primary cilium in ventral neural tube patterning. Further research has shown that most components of the Shh pathway localize to or shuttle through the primary cilium. In the absence of Shh, the bifunctional Gli transcription factors are proteolytically processed into repressor forms in a protein kinase A (PKA)- and cilium-dependent manner. Recent work suggests that the orphan G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) Gpr161 localizes to cilia, and functions as a negative regulator of Shh signaling by determining Gli processing via cAMP signaling. The primary cilium also functions as a signaling compartment for calcium in the Shh pathway. A better understanding of the role of the cilium as a signaling compartment, and the interplay of second messenger systems that regulate PKA activation and Gli amplification during signaling is critical for deciphering the role of Shh during development, neuronal differentiation, and tumorigenesis.

Background and Purpose Despite the availability of a variety of treatment options, many asthma patients have poorly controlled disease with frequent exacerbations. Proteinase‐activated receptor‐2 (PAR2) has been identified in preclinical animal models as important to asthma initiation and progression following allergen exposure. Proteinase activation of PAR2 raises intracellular Ca2+, inducing MAPK and β‐arrestin signalling in the airway, leading to inflammatory and protective effects. We have developed C391, a potent PAR2 antagonist effective in blocking peptidomimetic‐ and trypsin‐induced PAR2 signalling in vitro as well as reducing inflammatory PAR2‐associated pain in vivo. We hypothesized that PAR2 antagonism by C391 would attenuate allergen‐induced acutely expressed asthma indicators in murine models. Experimental Approach We evaluated the ability of C391 to alter Alternaria alternata‐induced PAR2 signalling pathways in vitro using a human airway epithelial cell line that naturally expresses PAR2 (16HBE14o−) and a transfected embryonic cell line (HEK 293). We next evaluated the ability for C391 to reduce A. alternata‐induced acutely expressed asthma indicators in vivo in two murine strains. Key Results C391 blocked A. alternata‐induced, PAR2‐dependent Ca2+ and MAPK signalling in 16HBE14o− cells, as well as β‐arrestin recruitment in HEK 293 cells. C391 effectively attenuated A. alternata‐induced inflammation, mucus production, mucus cell hyperplasia and airway hyperresponsiveness in acute allergen‐challenged murine models. Conclusions and Implications To our best knowledge, this is the first demonstration of pharmacological intervention of PAR2 to reduce allergen‐induced asthma indicators in vivo. These data support further development of PAR2 antagonists as potential first‐in‐class allergic asthma drugs.

Polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR) transcytoses dimeric IgA and IgA-coated immune complexes from the lamina propria across epithelia and into secretions. The effect of reovirus infection on regulation of pIgR expression in the human intestinal epithelial cell line HT-29 was characterized in this report. Both replication-competent and UV-inactivated reovirus at m.o.i. equivalents of 1-100 p.f.u. per cell upregulated pIgR mRNA by 24 h post-infection and intracellular pIgR protein was increased at 48 h following exposure to UV-inactivated virus. Binding of virus to HT-29 cells was required, as pre-incubating virus with specific antiserum, but not non-immune serum, inhibited reovirus-mediated pIgR upregulation. Endosomal acidification leading to uncoating of virus is a required step for pIgR upregulation, as ammonium chloride or bafilomycin A1 pre-treatment inhibited virus-induced pIgR upregulation. Inhibition experiments using the calpain inhibitor N-acetyl-leucyl-leucyl-norleucinal suggested that calpains are involved in reovirus-mediated pIgR upregulation. Upregulation of pIgR following virus infection appears to be an innate immune response against invading pathogens that could help the host clear infection effectively. Signalling induced by microbes and their products may serve to augment pIgR-mediated transcytosis of IgA, linking the innate and acquired immune responses to viruses.