BackgroundMen with germline breast cancer 1, early onset (BRCA1) or breast cancer 2, early onset (BRCA2) gene mutations have a higher risk of developing prostate cancer (PCa) than noncarriers. IMPACT (Identification of Men with a genetic predisposition to ProstAte Cancer: Targeted screening in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers and controls) is an international consortium of 62 centres in 20 countries evaluating the use of targeted PCa screening in men with BRCA1/2 mutations.ObjectiveTo report the first year's screening results for all men at enrolment in the study.Design, setting and participantsWe recruited men aged 40–69 yr with germline BRCA1/2 mutations and a control group of men who have tested negative for a pathogenic BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation known to be present in their families. All men underwent prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing at enrolment, and those men with PSA >3 ng/ml were offered prostate biopsy.Outcome measurements and statistical analysisPSA levels, PCa incidence, and tumour characteristics were evaluated. The Fisher exact test was used to compare the number of PCa cases among groups and the differences among disease types.Results and limitationsWe recruited 2481 men (791 BRCA1 carriers, 531 BRCA1 controls; 731 BRCA2 carriers, 428 BRCA2 controls). A total of 199 men (8%) presented with PSA >3.0 ng/ml, 162 biopsies were performed, and 59 PCas were diagnosed (18 BRCA1 carriers, 10 BRCA1 controls; 24 BRCA2 carriers, 7 BRCA2 controls); 66% of the tumours were classified as intermediate- or high-risk disease. The positive predictive value (PPV) for biopsy using a PSA threshold of 3.0 ng/ml in BRCA2 mutation carriers was 48%—double the PPV reported in population screening studies. A significant difference in detecting intermediate- or high-risk disease was observed in BRCA2 carriers. Ninety-five percent of the men were white, thus the results cannot be generalised to all ethnic groups.ConclusionsThe IMPACT screening network will be useful for targeted PCa screening studies in men with germline genetic risk variants as they are discovered. These preliminary results support the use of targeted PSA screening based on BRCA genotype and show that this screening yields a high proportion of aggressive disease.Patient summaryIn this report, we demonstrate that germline genetic markers can be used to identify men at higher risk of prostate cancer. Targeting screening at these men resulted in the identification of tumours that were more likely to require treatment.

Background:The hypoxia marker pimonidazole is a candidate biomarker of cancer aggressiveness. We investigated the transcriptional programme associated with pimonidazole staining in prostate cancer.Methods:Index tumour biopsies were taken by image guidance from an investigation cohort of 52 patients, where 43 patients received pimonidazole before prostatectomy. Biopsy location within the index tumour was verified for 46 (88%) patients, who were included for gene expression profiling and immunohistochemistry. Two independent cohorts of 59 and 281 patients were used for validation.Results:Expression of genes in proliferation, DNA repair and hypoxia response was a major part of the transcriptional programme associated with pimonidazole staining. A signature of 32 essential genes was constructed and showed positive correlation to Ki67 staining, confirming the increased proliferation in hypoxic tumours as suggested from the gene data. Positive correlations were also found to tumour stage and lymph node status, but not to blood prostate-specific antigen level, consistent with the findings for pimonidazole staining. The association with aggressiveness was confirmed in validation cohorts, where the signature correlated with Gleason score and had independent prognostic impact, respectively.Conclusions:Pimonidazole staining reflects an aggressive hypoxic phenotype of prostate cancer characterised by upregulation of proliferation, DNA repair and hypoxia response genes.

BackgroundMutations in BRCA2 cause a higher risk of early-onset aggressive prostate cancer (PrCa). The IMPACT study is evaluating targeted PrCa screening using prostate-specific-antigen (PSA) in men with germline BRCA1/2 mutations.ObjectiveTo report the utility of PSA screening, PrCa incidence, positive predictive value of PSA, biopsy, and tumour characteristics after 3 yr of screening, by BRCA status.Design, setting, and participantsMen aged 40–69 yr with a germline pathogenic BRCA1/2 mutation and male controls testing negative for a familial BRCA1/2 mutation were recruited. Participants underwent PSA screening for 3 yr, and if PSA > 3.0 ng/ml, men were offered prostate biopsy.Outcome measurements and statistical analysisPSA levels, PrCa incidence, and tumour characteristics were evaluated. Statistical analyses included Poisson regression offset by person-year follow-up, chi-square tests for proportion t tests for means, and Kruskal-Wallis for medians.Results and limitationsA total of 3027 patients (2932 unique individuals) were recruited (919 BRCA1 carriers, 709 BRCA1 noncarriers, 902 BRCA2 carriers, and 497 BRCA2 noncarriers). After 3 yr of screening, 527 men had PSA > 3.0 ng/ml, 357 biopsies were performed, and 112 PrCa cases were diagnosed (31 BRCA1 carriers, 19 BRCA1 noncarriers, 47 BRCA2 carriers, and 15 BRCA2 noncarriers). Higher compliance with biopsy was observed in BRCA2 carriers compared with noncarriers (73% vs 60%). Cancer incidence rate per 1000 person years was higher in BRCA2 carriers than in noncarriers (19.4 vs 12.0; p =  0.03); BRCA2 carriers were diagnosed at a younger age (61 vs 64 yr; p =  0.04) and were more likely to have clinically significant disease than BRCA2 noncarriers (77% vs 40%; p =  0.01). No differences in age or tumour characteristics were detected between BRCA1 carriers and BRCA1 noncarriers. The 4 kallikrein marker model discriminated better (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.73) for clinically significant cancer at biopsy than PSA alone (AUC = 0.65).ConclusionsAfter 3 yr of screening, compared with noncarriers, BRCA2 mutation carriers were associated with a higher incidence of PrCa, younger age of diagnosis, and clinically significant tumours. Therefore, systematic PSA screening is indicated for men with a BRCA2 mutation. Further follow-up is required to assess the role of screening in BRCA1 mutation carriers.Patient summaryWe demonstrate that after 3 yr of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing, we detect more serious prostate cancers in men with BRCA2 mutations than in those without these mutations. We recommend that male BRCA2 carriers are offered systematic PSA screening.

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Hypoxia is an important environmental change in many cancers. Hypoxic niches can be occupied by cancer stem/progenitor-like cells that are associated with tumor progression and resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, it has not yet been fully elucidated how hypoxia influences the stem-like properties of prostate cancer cells. In this report, we investigated the effects of hypoxia on human prostate cancer cell lines, PC-3 and DU145. In comparison to normoxia (20% O2), 7% O2 induced higher expressions of HIF-1α and HIF-2α, which were associated with upregulation of Oct3/4 and Nanog; 1% O2 induced even greater levels of these factors. The upregulated NANOG mRNA expression in hypoxia was confirmed to be predominantly retrogene NANOGP8. Similar growth rates were observed for cells cultivated under hypoxic and normoxic conditions for 48 hours; however, the colony formation assay revealed that 48 hours of hypoxic pretreatment resulted in the formation of more colonies. Treatment with 1% O2 also extended the G0/G1 stage, resulting in more side population cells, and induced CD44 and ABCG2 expressions. Hypoxia also increased the number of cells positive for ABCG2 expression, which were predominantly found to be CD44bright cells. Correspondingly, the sorted CD44bright cells expressed higher levels of ABCG2, Oct3/4, and Nanog than CD44dim cells, and hypoxic pretreatment significantly increased the expressions of these factors. CD44bright cells under normoxia formed significantly more colonies and spheres compared with the CD44dim cells, and hypoxic pretreatment even increased this effect. Our data indicate that prostate cancer cells under hypoxia possess greater stem-like properties.

Study Type – Therapy (RCT) Level of Evidence 1b What's known on the subject? and What does the study add? Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is commonly used as a primary treatment for patients with prostate cancer (PCa) who are not eligible for radical treatment options. ADT is also used in patients with PCa as neo‐adjuvant hormone therapy to reduce prostate volume and down‐stage the disease before radiotherapy with curative intent. The present study showed that ADT with the gonadotropin hormone‐releasing hormone (GhRH) antagonist degarelix is non‐inferior to combined treatment with the LHRH agonist goserelin and bicalutamide in terms of reducing prostate volume during the treatment period of 3 months. Degarelix treatment evokes, however, significantly better relief of lower urinary tract symptoms in patients having moderate and severe voiding problems. OBJECTIVE To assess the efficacy of monthly degarelix treatment for reduction of total prostate volume (TPV), relief of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and improvement of quality of life (QoL) in patients with prostate cancer (PCa) using monthly goserelin as active control. METHODS This was a randomized, parallel‐arm, active‐controlled, open‐label, multicentre trial on 182 patients treated with either monthly degarelix (240/80 mg) or goserelin (3.6 mg) for 12 weeks. For flare protection, goserelin‐treated patients also received daily bicalutamide (50 mg) during the initial 28 days. Key trial variables monitored monthly were TPV (primary endpoint), serum testosterone, prostate‐specific antigen (PSA), the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) and the Benign Prostate Hyperplasia Impact Index. RESULTS In all, 175 patients completed the trial (96.1%). At week 12, changes in TPV for degarelix and goserelin were similar (−37.2% vs −39.0%) and met the predefined non‐inferiority criterion. Decreases in IPSS were greater in degarelix than in goserelin‐treated patients, differences being statistically significant in patients with baseline IPSS > 13 (−6.7 ± 1.8 vs −4.0 ± 1.0; P= 0.02). The number of patients with an IPSS change of ≥3 over baseline was also significantly higher in patients treated with degarelix (61.0 vs 44.3%, P= 0.02). Both treatments were safe and well tolerated. CONCLUSIONS Medical castration reduces TPV and could also improve LUTS in patients with PCa. While the short‐term efficacy of degarelix and goserelin + bicalutamide was the same in terms of TPV reduction, degarelix showed superiority in LUTS relief in symptomatic patients, which could highlight the different actions of these drugs on extrapituitary gonadotrophin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) receptors in the bladder and/or the prostate.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the role of targeted prostate cancer screening in men with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations, an international study, IMPACT (Identification of Men with a genetic predisposition to ProstAte Cancer: Targeted screening in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers and controls), was established. This is the first multicentre screening study targeted at men with a known genetic predisposition to prostate cancer. A preliminary analysis of the data is reported. PATIENTS AND METHODS Men aged 40–69 years from families with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations were offered annual prostate specific antigen (PSA) testing, and those with PSA >3 ng/mL, were offered a prostate biopsy. Controls were men age-matched (± 5 years) who were negative for the familial mutation. RESULTS In total, 300 men were recruited (205 mutation carriers; 89 BRCA1, 116 BRCA2 and 95 controls) over 33 months. At the baseline screen (year 1), 7.0% (21/300) underwent a prostate biopsy. Prostate cancer was diagnosed in ten individuals, a prevalence of 3.3%. The positive predictive value of PSA screening in this cohort was 47·6% (10/21). One prostate cancer was diagnosed at year 2. Of the 11 prostate cancers diagnosed, nine were in mutation carriers, two in controls, and eight were clinically significant. CONCLUSIONS The present study shows that the positive predictive value of PSA screening in BRCA mutation carriers is high and that screening detects clinically significant prostate cancer. These results support the rationale for continued screening in such men.

E 6 9What ' s known on the subject? and What does the study add? Several authors have previously reported that transrectal prostate biopsy has a false-negative rate of 20 -30%, and that a number of prostate cancers missed on transrectal biopsy can be detected by transperineal biopsy. It has also been shown that most of these tumours are located anteriorly in the prostate gland.The present study showed a high rate of prostate cancer in patients with previous negative transrectal biopsies but elevated PSA levels, and that the cancers were located anteriorly in the prostate gland. Also, most of these cancers were clinically signifi cant in patients that underwent RP, i.e. a high proportion of cancers were high-grade/ high-stage tumours. We also showed that the transperineal biopsy technique can be applied successfully to patients with a closed anal orifi ce after previous surgery for rectal cancer. Transperineal biopsy can be done safely without routine antibiotic prophylaxis. OBJECTIVE• To investigate the outcomes of transperineal prostate biopsies in patients with elevated prostate-specifi c antigen (PSA) levels and negative transrectal biopsies. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate the diagnostic yield of the transperineal biopsy approach in these patients, and to evaluate the pathology fi ndings in subsequent radical prostatectomy (RP) specimens in patients undergoing RP. PATIENTS AND METHODS• In all, 69 consecutive patients with previous negative transrectal biopsies but elevated PSA levels investigated at urological units in Norway who had been referred to The Norwegian Radium Hospital were included.• The patients had undergone a mean (median; range) of 2.42 (2; 0 -7) transrectal biopsies. The mean (range) age was 63.1 (42 -78) years. The median (range) PSA level was 12 (4.3 -229) ng/mL.• The patients were examined with transperineal biopsy of the prostate between July 2007 and February 2009. The results of the transperineal biopsies were reviewed for Gleason biopsy score, and these were compared with the histopathology results of the RP specimens, i.e. fi nal Gleason scores.• Pathological stage of the prostate specimens and tumour volume were also reviewed. RESULTS• Prostate cancer was found in the biopsies of 38 of 69 patients (55%).• In all, 20 of 38 patients had a Gleason score estimated at ≥ 3 + 4 = 7.• In all, 26 patients underwent RP. The surgical specimens revealed pathological stage pT2c in 65%, pT3a in 27% and pT3b in 8% of the cases.• In all, 23 of the 26 RP specimens showed a fi nal Gleason score of ≥ 7. The vast majority of cancers detected were situated in the anterior/ventral portion of the prostate. CONCLUSIONS• Transperineal biopsy of the prostate in patients with an elevated PSA level after negative transrectal prostate biopsies appears to be a feasible and important option for further investigation to detect prostate cancer.• The present study shows that the transperineal biopsy allows good access of the anterior/ventral part of the prostate.• Histopathology reports on the RP...