Background: Children growing up on small family farms are at much lower risk of developing allergy than other children. We hypothesized that low intake of margarine and polyunsaturated fats among farming families could contribute to this protection. Methods: Twenty-eight mother-infant pairs living on small dairy farms and 37 nonfarm rural resident pairs were recruited in the FARMFLORA birth cohort. Food items expected to affect dietary fat composition were recorded by food frequency questionnaires during pregnancy and by 24-h recalls followed by 24-h food diaries during lactation. Allergy was diagnosed by doctors, using strict predefined criteria. Maternal diet and breast milk fat composition were compared between farming and nonfarming mothers and related to children's allergy at age 3 y. results: Farming mothers consumed more butter, whole milk, saturated fat, and total fat than nonfarming mothers, who consumed more margarine, oils, and low-fat milk. Farming mothers' breast milk contained higher proportions of saturated and lower proportions of polyunsaturated fat. Allergy was eight times more common in nonfarm children. Mothers of allergic children consumed more margarine and oils than mothers of nonallergic children. conclusion: Low maternal consumption of margarine and vegetable oils might contribute to the allergy-preventive effect of growing up on small dairy farms.

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Linkages between diet and other lifestyle factors may confound observational studies. We used cluster analysis to analyze how the intake of food and nutrients during pregnancy co-varies with lifestyle, clinical and demographic factors in 567 women who participated in the NICE (nutritional impact on immunological maturation during childhood in relation to the environment) birth-cohort in northern Sweden. A food frequency questionnaire, Meal-Q, was administered in pregnancy Week 34, and the reported food and nutrient intakes were related to maternal characteristics such as age, education, rural/town residence, parity, pre-pregnancy smoking, first-trimester BMI, allergy and hyperemesis. Two lifestyle-diet clusters were identified: (1) High level of education and higher age were related to one another, and associated with a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and fish, and (2) smoking before pregnancy and higher BMI in early pregnancy were related to one another and associated with a diet that contained white bread, French fries, pizza, meat, soft drinks, candy and snacks. More than half of the women had lower-than-recommended daily intake levels of vitamin D, folate, selenium, and iodine. Complex lifestyle-diet interactions should be considered in observational studies that link diet and pregnancy outcome.

Children growing up on farms have low rates of allergy, but the mechanism for this protective effect has not been fully elucidated. Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by the gut microbiota may play a role in protection from allergy. We measured fecal SCFA levels in samples collected from 28 farming and 37 control children over the first 3 years of life using gas chromatography. Data on diet and other host factors were recorded and allergy was diagnosed at 8 years of age. Among all children, median propionic and butyric acid concentration increased over the first 3 years, and longer SCFAs typically appeared by 1 year of age. Farm children had higher levels of iso-butyric, iso-valeric and valeric acid at 3 years of age than rural controls. In addition, children with elder siblings had higher levels of valeric acid at 3 years of age, and dietary factors also affected SCFA pattern. High levels of valeric acid at 3 years of age were associated with low rate of eczema at 8 years of age. The fecal SCFA pattern in farm children suggests a more rapid maturation of the gut microbiota. Valeric acid or associated microbes may have protective potential against eczema.

IntroductionPrenatal and neonatal environmental factors, such as nutrition, microbes and toxicants, may affect health throughout life. Many diseases, such as allergy and impaired child development, may be programmed already in utero or during early infancy. Birth cohorts are important tools to study associations between early life exposure and disease risk. Here, we describe the study protocol of the prospective birth cohort, ‘Nutritional impact on Immunological maturation during Childhood in relation to the Environment’ (NICE). The primary aim of the NICE cohort is to clarify the effect of key environmental exposures—diet, microbes and environmental toxicants—during pregnancy and early childhood, on the maturation of the infant’s immune system, including initiation of sensitisation and allergy as well as some secondary outcomes: infant growth, obesity, neurological development and oral health.Methods and analysisThe NICE cohort will recruit about 650 families during mid-pregnancy. The principal inclusion criterion will be planned birth at the Sunderby Hospital in the north of Sweden, during 2015–2018. Questionnaires data and biological samples will be collected at 10 time-points, from pregnancy until the children reach 4 years of age. Samples will be collected primarily from mothers and children, and from fathers. Biological samples include blood, urine, placenta, breast milk, meconium, faeces, saliva and hair. Information regarding allergic heredity, diet, socioeconomic status, lifestyle including smoking, siblings, pet ownership, etc will be collected using questionnaires. Sensitisation to common allergens will be assessed by skin prick testing and allergic disease will be diagnosed by a paediatrician at 1 and 4 years of age. At 4 years of age, the children will also be examined regarding growth, neurobehavioural and neurophysiological status and oral health.Ethics and disseminationThe NICE cohort has been approved by the Regional Ethical Review Board in Umeå, Sweden (2013/18-31M). Results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals and communicated on scientific conferences.

It appears that cold is one of the factors that can trigger a process resulting in CP/CPPS. The fact that cold also causes aggravation of symptoms and can initiate a relapse was evident, as was the fact that symptoms could be relieved by heat. The connection between cold and symptom aggravation is well known among clinicians but has not previously been studied in a systematic way. The fact that cold, in a susceptible man, can initiate a process resulting in CP/CPSS has not been reported before. Studies aimed at elucidating the mechanisms behind this phenomenon are warranted. Reflex vasoconstriction in a susceptible individual is a possible cause.

The allergy-protective effect of farming was not linked to infant serum fatty acid composition. However, healthy infants had higher proportions of EPA in their sera, probably reflecting a family diet rich in fish, compared to subsequently allergic children.

Age, as well as the duration of the condition, influenced the distress induced by CP/CPPS, suggesting an improved coping ability with time as well as age. The ambient temperature appears to play a role as cold was frequently reported as causing symptom aggravation and heat was often reported to be ameliorating. The mechanisms behind this association between CP/CPPS and temperature as well as the correlation between ejaculatory pain and dysuria require further study.