To investigate the effect of face inversion and thatcherization (eye inversion) on temporal processing stages of facial information, single neuron activities in the temporal cortex (area TE) of two rhesus monkeys were recorded. Test stimuli were colored pictures of monkey faces (four with four different expressions), human faces (three with four different expressions), and geometric shapes. Modifications were made in each face-picture, and its four variations were used as stimuli: upright original, inverted original, upright thatcherized, and inverted thatcherized faces. A total of 119 neurons responded to at least one of the upright original facial stimuli. A majority of the neurons (71%) showed activity modulations depending on upright and inverted presentations, and a lesser number of neurons (13%) showed activity modulations depending on original and thatcherized face conditions. In the case of face inversion, information about the fine category (facial identity and expression) decreased, whereas information about the global category (monkey vs human vs shape) was retained for both the original and thatcherized faces. Principal component analysis on the neuronal population responses revealed that the global categorization occurred regardless of the face inversion and that the inverted faces were represented near the upright faces in the principal component analysis space. By contrast, the face inversion decreased the ability to represent human facial identity and monkey facial expression. Thus, the neuronal population represented inverted faces as faces but failed to represent the identity and expression of the inverted faces, indicating that the neuronal representation in area TE cause the perceptual effect of face inversion.
cortical networks exhibit large shifts in spontaneous dynamics depending on the vigilance state. Waking and rapid eye movement (ReM) sleep are characterized by ongoing irregular activity of cortical neurons while during slow wave sleep (SWS) these neurons show synchronous alterations between silent (off) and active (on) periods. the network dynamics underlying these phenomena are not fully understood. Additional information about the state of cortical networks can be obtained by evaluating evoked cortical responses during the sleep-wake cycle. We measured local field potentials (LFP) and multi-unit activity (MUA) in the cortex in response to repeated brief optogenetic stimulation of thalamocortical afferents. Both LFP and MUA responses were considerably increased in sleep compared to waking, with larger responses during SWS than during REM sleep. The strongly increased cortical response in SWS is discussed within the context of SWS-associated neuro-modulatory tone that may reduce feedforward inhibition. Responses to stimuli were larger during SWS-off periods than during SWS-ON periods. SWS responses showed clear daily fluctuation correlated to light-dark cycle, but no reaction to increased sleep need following sleep deprivation. potential homeostatic synaptic plasticity was either absent or masked by large vigilance-state effects.Behaviorally, sleep is characterized by loss of consciousness, increased arousal threshold, and immobility 1 . Despite decreased communication with the periphery during sleep, cortical neurons remain almost as active as during waking, although the pattern is strikingly different. The activity switches from ongoing irregular action potential firing during waking to synchronized rhythmic oscillations between silent (OFF) and active (ON) periods 2,3 , called slow wave activity in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep or slow wave sleep (SWS), indicating a profound change in the functional cortical architecture. The underlying mechanisms of this switch and the consequences for cortical function and behavior are not fully understood.In addition to observations of spontaneous oscillations, measurements of evoked cortical responses can be used to probe the functional state of the cortical network during waking and sleep 4-11 . Sensory stimuli can reach the cortex during SWS, which allows for studying the effect of wake-sleep transitions on cortical responsiveness 7-10 . Cortical reactivity indeed changes between waking and sleep, but the effect is strongly dependent on the sensory modality and type of stimulus. In the somatosensory cortex, both response depression and enhancement are observed during sleep compared with waking. In human subjects, sensory evoked potentials are smaller during NREM sleep compared with waking 7 . In macaques, responses to tactile stimuli are significantly decreased during SWS compared with waking 8 . Electrical activation of the medial lemniscus results in smaller responses in SWS compared with those in the preceding waking episode 11 . On the other hand, whisker defl...
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