Recent observations suggest that permafrost thaw may create two completely different soil environments: aerobic in relatively well-drained uplands and anaerobic in poorly drained wetlands. The soil oxygen availability will dictate the rate of permafrost carbon release as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and as methane (CH 4 ), and the overall effects of these emitted greenhouse gases on climate. The objective of this study was to quantify CO 2 and CH 4 release over a 500-day period from permafrost soil under aerobic and anaerobic conditions in the laboratory and to compare the potential effects of these emissions on future climate by estimating their relative climate forcing. We used permafrost soils collected from Alaska and Siberia with varying organic matter characteristics and simultaneously incubated them under aerobic and anaerobic conditions to determine rates of CO 2 and CH 4 production. Over 500 days of soil incubation at 15°C, we observed that carbon released under aerobic conditions was 3.9-10.0 times greater than anaerobic conditions. When scaled by greenhouse warming potential to account for differences between CO 2 and CH 4 , relative climate forcing ranged between 1.5 and 7.1. Carbon release in organic soils was nearly 20 times greater than mineral soils on a per gram soil basis, but when compared on a per gram carbon basis, deep permafrost mineral soils showed carbon release rates similar to organic soils for some soil types. This suggests that permafrost carbon may be very labile, but that there are significant differences across soil types depending on the processes that controlled initial permafrost carbon accumulation within a particular landscape. Overall, our study showed that, independent of soil type, permafrost carbon in a relatively aerobic upland ecosystems may have a greater effect on climate when compared with a similar amount of permafrost carbon thawing in an anaerobic environment, despite the release of CH 4 that occurs in anaerobic conditions.

Organic matter decomposition regulates rates of carbon loss (CO 2 and CH 4 ) in wetlands and has implications for carbon sequestration in the context of changing global temperature. Here we determined the influence of temperature and vegetation type on both aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in subtropical wetland soils. As in many other studies, increased temperature resulted in higher rates of respiration and methanogenesis under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and the positive effect of temperature depended on vegetation (source of carbon substrate to soil). Under anaerobic incubations, the proportion of gaseous C (CO 2 and CH 4 ) lost as CH 4 increased with temperature indicating a greater sensitivity of methanogenesis to temperature. This was further supported by a wider range of Q 10 values (1.4-3.6) for methane production as compared with anaerobic CO 2 (1.3-2.5) or aerobic CO 2 (1.4-2.1) production. The increasing strength of positive linear correlation between CO 2 :CH 4 ratio and the soil organic matter ligno-cellulose index at higher temperature indicated that the temperature sensitivity of methanogenesis was likely the result of increased C availability at higher temperature. This information adds to our basic understanding of decomposition in warmer subtropical and tropical wetland systems and has implications for C models in wetlands with different vegetation types.

Allochthonous and autochthonous organic matter deposited in benthic sediments are mineralized by microbial communities, resulting in release of nutrients to the water column. Lakes with different trophic states may have sediments with different carbon and nutrient concentration with consequently different microbial communities. Microbial diversity of surface sediments of three subtropical lakes of different trophic state was investigated by measuring catabolic response to a wide variety of carbon-substrates. Basal carbon dioxide and methane production rates were highest in Lake Apopka (hypereutrophic), followed by Lake Annie (oligo-mesotrophic) and Lake Okeechobee (eutrophic) sediments. The oligo-mesotrophic Lake Annie showed the highest metabolic quotient (qCO 2 ; proportion of basal respiration per unit of microbial biomass, 0.008 ± 0.001) indicating inefficient use of energy. The low qCO 2 found in Lake Apopka sediment indicated higher efficiency in using energy. Lake Okeechobee sediments had intermediary values of qCO 2 (M9 0.005 ± 0.001; M17 0.006 ± 0.0003; KR 0.004 ± 0.001) as compared with other lakes (lake Apopka 0.004 ± 0.14). Lake Apopka's sediment catabolic diversity was higher than that observed in other sediments. Addition of organic electron donors to sediment samples from all lakes stimulated heterotrophic activity; however, the extent of the response varied greatly and was related to microbial biomass. The hypereutrophic Lake Apopka sediments had the highest respiration per unit of microbial biomass with the addition of electron donors indicating that these sediments respired most of the C added. These results showed that sediments with different biogeochemical properties had microbial communities with distinct catabolic responses to addition of the C sources.

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A Cr(VI)-resistant, Gram-positive, spore-forming, obligate anaerobe, designated GCAF-1 T , was isolated from chromium-contaminated soil by its ability to reduce Cr(VI) in low concentrations. Mixed acid fermentation during growth on glucose resulted in accumulation of acetate, butyrate, formate and lactate. Morphological studies indicated the presence of peritrichous flagella, pili and an S-layer. The major cellular fatty acids (.5 %) were C 16 : 0 , C 14 : 0 , summed feature 3 (comprising iso-C 15 : 0 2-OH and/or C 16 : 1 v7c), C 18 : 1 v7c, ) represents a novel species of the genus Clostridium, for which the name Clostridium chromiireducens sp. nov. is proposed.

Abstract. Recent developments in modelling soil organic carbon decomposition include the explicit incorporation of enzyme and microbial dynamics. A characteristic of these models is a positive feedback between substrate and consumers, which is absent in traditional first-order decay models. With sufficiently large substrate, this feedback allows an unconstrained growth of microbial biomass. We explore mechanisms that curb unrestricted microbial growth by including finite potential sites where enzymes can bind and by allowing microbial scavenging for enzymes. We further developed a model where enzyme synthesis is not scaled to microbial biomass but associated with a respiratory cost and microbial population adjusts enzyme production in order to optimise their growth. We then tested short-and long-term responses of these models to a step increase in temperature and find that these models differ in the long-term when shortterm responses are harmonised. We show that several mechanisms, including substrate limitation, variable production of microbial enzymes, and microbes feeding on extracellular enzymes eliminate oscillations arising from a positive feedback between microbial biomass and depolymerisation. The model where enzyme production is optimised to yield maximum microbial growth shows the strongest reduction in soil organic carbon in response to warming, and the trajectory of soil carbon largely follows that of a first-order decomposition model. Modifications to separate growth and maintenance respiration generally yield short-term differences, but results converge over time because microbial biomass approaches a quasi-equilibrium with the new conditions of carbon supply and temperature.

Abstract. Recent developments in modelling soil organic carbon decomposition include the explicit incorporation of enzyme and microbial dynamics. A characteristic of these models is a positive feedback between substrate and consumers which is absent in traditional first order decay models. Under sufficient large substrate, this new feedback allows an unconstrained growth of microbial biomass. A second phenomenon incorporated in the microbial decomposition models is decreased carbon use efficiency (CUE) with increasing temperature. Here, first we analyse microbial decomposition models by parameterising changes in CUE based on the differentiation between growth and maintenance respiration. We then explore mechanisms that curb unrestricted microbial growth by including finite potential sites where enzymes can bind and by allowing microbial scavenging for enzymes. Finally, we propose a model where enzyme synthesis is associated with a respiratory cost and microbial population adjusts enzyme production in order to optimise their growth. When applying a step increase in temperature, we find fast responses that reflect adjustments to enzyme dynamics and maintenance respiration, a short-term adjustment in microbial growth, and the long-term change in carbon storage. We find that mechanisms that prevent unrestricted microbial growth lead to a similar response to warming as traditional first order decomposition models.

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