Breast milk is a complex biological fluid that is rich in nutrients and bioactive agents that support the healthy growth and development of the newborns. Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are unconjugated glycans that constitute an important component of the protection conferred by breast milk on the neonate. HMOs may act locally on the neonatal intestine by acting as signalling molecules and directly interacting with the host cells. Although fucosylated and sialylated HMOs have little nutritional value, they exert important prebiotic as well as immunomodulatory effects on the infant gut. However, there is heterogeneity in the quantity and quality of HMOs in breast milk produced by mothers under influence of the genetic and environmental factors. This review encompasses the salient aspects of HMOs such as composition, function, structural diversity, and functional impact on the growth and survival of newborns. In this review, the current knowledge on HMOs is contextualised to discuss the gaps in scientific understanding and the avenues for future research.
Amongst the endocrine glands, thyroid gland is well known for its developmental anomalies, which range from common to rare ones. The presence of levator glandulae thyroideae and its anatomical variations gain importance in the pathologies which are related to thyroid gland and their treatment modalities. Levator glandulae thyroideae is a fibromuscular band. If it is present, it is usually seen on the left side, to connect the pyramidal lobe of thyroid gland and the hyoid bone. But levator glandulae thyroideae which stretches from isthmus to the body of hyoid bone is rare and only very few cases have been reported in the medical literature. During a routine dissection of the thyroid gland in a 55 years old male cadaver, a Levator Glandulae Thyroideae (which was fibromusculoglandular in nature) was seen, with the absence of pyramidal lobe on the left side. It directly came from upper border of isthmus and went upto hyoid bone. It also had innervation from branches of external laryngeal nerve. This was also associated with absence of superior thyroid artery on the same side. The knowledge on various developmental anomalies of the gland and variations in neurovascular relations will help the surgeons in plan thyroid surgeries in a better and safe way.
In the present study, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including six congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides, were estimated in human breast milk samples collected from two districts of Punjab (India). The mean concentrations of POP residues were recorded higher in Bathinda district (PCBs: 33.7; DDTs: 519.2; HCHs: 46.6 ng g lipid wt.) than Ludhiana (PCBs: 24.2; DDTs; 415.3; HCHs; 35.5 ng g lipid wt.). Levels of PCBs and DDTs were observed higher in primiparas, whereas HCHs residues were seen more in multiparas. Risk analysis to POPs exposure through breast milk reflected that the daily intake for some infants was close to or above the tolerable daily intake limit for detrimental effects, which may raise a health concern. Comparative evaluation of present data indicated that DDT and HCHs residue levels in human breast milk from Punjab, India were among the lowest values reported for developing countries. The first-order kinetic reaction at a steady-state condition used to estimate the half-life of DDT and HCH suggested that DDT levels have declined from 18,211 to 490 ng g lipid wt. with a half-life (Tdec) of 3.25 years over a span of 15 years. Similarly, HCH levels have decreased from 8609 to 46.6 ng g in this duration with Tdec of 2.25 years. Because some infants are still at risk, continuous monitoring of POPs in human milk is needed for surveillance and interpretation of time trends and for linkage to strict enforcement of agricultural regulations.
The anatomical variations of the brachial plexus in humans have clinical significance for surgeons, radiologists, and anatomists. In a study of 60 brachial plexuses, four trunked brachial plexuses were encountered in three limbs (two female and one male), all of them being post fixed and on left side of cadavers. The third trunk in all these limbs gave rise to two anterior divisions (upper and lower) and one posterior division. In two limbs belonging to the female sex, the upper anterior division joined with the anterior division of the second trunk to form the lateral cord while its lower anterior division joined with the anterior division of the fourth trunk to form the medial cord. In the sole male limb, along with the third trunk, the fourth trunk also divided into upper and lower anterior divisions. Upper anterior divisions of the third and fourth trunks joined to form the medial root of the median nerve while lower anterior divisions joined to form the ulnar nerve. No medial cord was formed as such. Further, it is inferred that in postfixed brachial plexus, there is a tendency to failure on part of T1 and T2 to join C8 which continues as the third trunk while T1 and T2 continue as the fourth trunk. Since it was seen in all postfixed brachial plexuses of the present study, it is emphasized to be given a place in the textbooks of anatomy or to conduct a study on a larger database.
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