Metazoans rely on aerobic energy production, which requires an adequate oxygen supply. During reduced oxygen supply (hypoxia), the most profound changes in gene expression are mediated by transcription factors known as hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs). HIF alpha proteins are commonly posttranslationally regulated by prolyl-4-hydroxylase (PHD) enzymes, which are direct "sensors" of cellular oxygen levels. We examined the molecular evolution of the metazoan PHD-HIF oxygen-sensing system by constructing complete phylogenies for PHD and HIF alpha genes and used computational tools to characterize the molecular changes underlying the functional divergence of PHD and HIF alpha duplicates. The presence of PHDs in metazoan genomes predates the emergence of HIF alphas. Our analysis revealed an unexpected diversity of PHD genes and HIF alpha sequence characteristics in invertebrates, suggesting that the simple oxygen-sensing systems of Caenorhabditis and Drosophila may not be typical of other invertebrate bilaterians. We studied the early vertebrate evolution of the system by sequencing these genes in early-diverging cartilaginous fishes, elasmobranchs. Cartilaginous fishes appear to have three paralogs of both PHD and HIF alpha. The novel sequences were used as outgroups for a detailed molecular analysis of PHD and HIF alpha duplicates in a major air-breathing vertebrate lineage, the mammals, and a major water-breathing vertebrate lineage, the teleosts. In PHDs, functionally divergent amino acid sites were detected near the HIF alpha-binding channel and beta2beta3 loop that defines its substrate specificity. In HIF alphas, more functional divergence was found in teleosts than in mammals, especially in the HIF-1 alpha PAS domain and HIF-2 alpha oxygen-dependent degradation (ODD) domains, which interact with PHDs. Overall, in the vertebrates, elevated substitution rates in the HIF-2 alpha N-terminal ODD domain, together with a functional divergence associated with the known differences in PHD2 versus PHD1/3 substrate specificity, have contributed to the tighter oxygen-sensitive regulation of HIF-1 alpha than that of HIF-2 alpha.

Gene duplication followed by neo-or subfunctionalization is a major mechanism by which genes with new functions and as-

Membrane-bound pyrophosphatase of the hyperthermophilic bacterium Thermotoga maritima(Tm-PPase), a homologue of H(+)-translocating pyrophosphatase, was expressed in Escherichia coli and isolated as inner membrane vesicles. In contrast to all previously studied H(+)-PPases, both native and recombinant Tm-PPases exhibited an absolute requirement for Na(+) but displayed the highest activity in the presence of millimolar levels of both Na(+) and K(+). Detergent-solubilized recombinant Tm-PPase was thermostable and retained the monovalent cation requirements of the membrane-embedded enzyme. Steady-state kinetic analysis of pyrophosphate hydrolysis by the wild-type enzyme suggested that two Na(+) binding sites and one K(+) binding site are involved in enzyme activation. The affinity of the site that binds Na(+) first is increased with increasing K(+) concentration. In contrast, only one Na(+) binding site (K(+)-dependent) and one K(+) binding site were involved in activation of the Asp(703) --> Asn variant. Thus, Asp(703) may form part of the K(+)-independent Na(+) binding site. Unlike all other membrane and soluble PPases, Tm-PPase did not catalyze oxygen exchange between phosphate and water. However, solubilized Tm-PPase exhibited low but measurable PP(i)-synthesizing activity, which also required Na(+) but was inhibited by K(+). These results demonstrate that T. maritima PPase belongs to a previously unknown subfamily of Na(+)-dependent H(+)-PPase homologues and may be an analogue of Na(+),K(+)-ATPase.

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Decidual stromal cells differentiate from endometrial stromal fibroblasts (ESFs) under the influence of progesterone and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and are essential for implantation and the maintenance of pregnancy. They evolved in the stem lineage of placental (eutherian) mammals coincidental with the evolution of implantation. Here we use the well-established in vitro decidualization protocol to compare early (3 days) and late (8 days) gene transcription patterns in immortalized human ESF. We document extensive, dynamic changes in the early and late decidual cell transcriptomes. The data suggest the existence of an early signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway dominated state and a later nuclear factor kB (NFKB) pathway regulated state. Transcription factor expression in both phases is characterized by putative or known progesterone receptor (PGR) target genes, suggesting that both phases are under progesterone control. Decidualization leads to proliferative quiescence, which is reversible by progesterone withdrawal after 3 days but to a lesser extent after 8 days of decidualization. In contrast, progesterone withdrawal induces cell death at comparable levels after short or long exposure to progestins and cAMP. We conclude that decidualization is characterized by a biphasic gene expression dynamic that likely corresponds to different phases in the establishment of the fetal-maternal interface.

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Oxygen is required for aerobic energy production but its levels have to be tightly regulated to avoid deleterious effects. Thus, animals have evolved mechanisms to monitor and respond to fluctuations in oxygen availability. Here, the evolution of the HIF system is discussed in light of a report that reveals its presence in the simplest animal.

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