Climate is changing at a fast pace, causing widespread, profound consequences for living organisms. Failure to adjust the timing of life-cycle events to climate may jeopardize populations by causing ecological mismatches to the life cycle of other species and abiotic factors. Population declines of some migratory birds breeding in Europe have been suggested to depend on their inability to adjust migration phenology so as to keep track of advancement of spring events at their breeding grounds. In fact, several migrants have advanced their spring arrival date, but whether such advancement has been sufficient to compensate for temporal shift in spring phenophases or, conversely, birds have become ecologically mismatched, is still an unanswered question, with very few exceptions. We used a novel approach based on accumulated winter and spring temperatures (degree-days) as a proxy for timing of spring biological events to test if the progress of spring at arrival to the breeding areas by 117 European migratory bird species has changed over the past five decades. Migrants, and particularly those wintering in sub-Saharan Africa, now arrive at higher degree-days and may have therefore accumulated a 'thermal delay', thus possibly becoming increasingly mismatched to spring phenology. Species with greater 'thermal delay' have shown larger population decline, and this evidence was not confounded by concomitant ecological factors or by phylogenetic effects. These findings provide general support to the largely untested hypotheses that migratory birds are becoming ecologically mismatched and that failure to respond to climate change can have severe negative impacts on their populations. The novel approach we adopted can be extended to the analysis of ecological consequences of phenological response to climate change by other taxa.

Summary1. Numerical studies of the relationship between birds and their habitat are important because they provide understanding of the impacts of natural and human factors on avian diversity. However, collinearity between explanatory variables and spatial autocorrelation can hamper the detection of key environmental factors underlying birdenvironment relationships identified by traditional regression approaches. This study utilized two alternative statistical methods to address these difficulties in biodiversity modelling. 2. We examined bird abundance patterns, spatial structure and relationship to environmental factors in an agricultural-forest mosaic landscape in Finland. We used data from 105 grid squares each 25 ha in size. Using variation partitioning and hierarchical partitioning methods, we determined the independent and joint effects of habitat cover, landscape structure and spatial variables on the total number of bird pairs and that of agricultural bird pairs. 3. The explanatory variables highlighted as important predictors of bird patterns by the two methods generally coincided well. The total number of bird pairs was negatively related to agricultural land, and positively to cover of forests and landscape heterogeneity. However, a clear majority of the explained variation in bird patterns was related to the joint effect of predictors, and the independent contributions of predictors were small. The univariate importance of landscape heterogeneity decreased greatly if the habitat cover variables were considered simultaneously. 4. Most of the explained variation in the number of agricultural bird pairs was related to the joint effects of the explanatory variables. In addition, the independent effect of habitat cover variables was considerable and agricultural birds showed a positive relationship with semi-natural grasslands. 5. Synthesis and applications . Variation partitioning and hierarchical partitioning approaches provide deeper insights into bird-environment relationships than traditional regression methods. This is particularly so when they are employed in a complementary manner. Our results indicate that a major part of the spatial structure in bird patterns in agricultural-forest mosaics can be caused by the clumping of habitats either preferred or avoided by birds. Moreover, at a scale of 25 ha, the abundance of bird pairs is not necessarily related to landscape heterogeneity as such, but depends more on the distribution of the most important habitats for birds.

Migratory species are of special concern in the face of global climate change, since they may be affected by changes in the wintering area, along the migration route and at the breeding grounds. Here we show that migration and breeding times of a trans-Saharan migrant, the pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca, closely follow local temperatures along the migration route and at the breeding grounds. Because of differences in long-term temperature trends of short within-spring periods, the migration period and the time interval between migration and breeding dates of this species have extended in SW Finland. Temperatures in northern parts of Central Europe have risen at the time when the first migrants arrive there, facilitating their migration northward. Temperatures later in the spring have not changed, and the last individuals arrive at the same time as before. The timing of breeding has not advanced because temperatures at the breeding site after arrival have not changed. These results show that the pied flycatchers can speed up their migration in response to rising temperatures along the migration route. Our results strongly indicate that the effects of climate change have to be studied at the appropriate time and geographical scales for each species and population concerned.

In the course of the 20th century, migratory birds have shown rapid phenological changes in response to climate change. However, the spatial variability of phenological changes, as well as their intraspecific consistency, remains largely unexplored. Here we analysed 672 estimates of change in first arrival dates of migratory birds and 289 estimates of mean/median arrival dates, based on time series with a minimum duration of 15 yr, collected across Europe from 1960 to 2006. There were highly significant advances in arrival date, significantly more so for first than mean arrival date. Change in arrival dates significantly varied among species, implying that response to climate change is a species-specific feature, and showed substantial phylogenetic effects, since ca. 50% of the variation in the observed trends was attributable to differences among species. The advance in first arrival date was weaker at extreme latitudes and stronger at intermediate latitudes, while geographic variation in mean arrival dates was less pronounced. Both first and mean arrival dates advanced the most for short-compared to long-distance migrants. These findings emphasize the reliability of estimates of phenological trends of avian species, which are therefore suitable to be included in comparative analyses aimed at identifying species-specific traits that favour adaptation to climatic changes. In addition, our results suggest that analyses of factors that have affected phenological responses to climate change should take into account spatial variation in the response, which could be due to spatial differences in the strength of climate change.

Summary1. Plant functional traits, in particular specific leaf area (SLA), wood density and seed mass, are often good predictors of individual tree growth rates within communities. Individuals and species with high SLA, low wood density and small seeds tend to have faster growth rates. 3. We tested these alternative hypotheses using data on 27 352 juvenile trees, representing 278 species from 27 sites on all forested continents, and extensive functional trait data, 38% of which were obtained at the same sites at which growth was assessed. Data on potential evapotranspiration (PET), which summarizes the joint ecological effects of temperature and precipitation, were obtained from a global data base. 4. We estimated size-standardized relative height growth rates (SGR) for all species, then related them to functional traits and PET using mixed-effect models for the fastest growing species and for all species together. 5. Both the mean and 95th percentile SGR were more strongly associated with functional traits than with PET. PET was unrelated to SGR at the global scale. SGR increased with increasing SLA and decreased with increasing wood density and seed mass, but these traits explained only 3.1% of the variation in SGR. SGR-trait relationships were consistently weak across families and biogeographic zones, and over a range of tree statures. Thus, the most widely studied functional traits in plant ecology were poor predictors of tree growth over large scales. 6. Synthesis. We conclude that these functional traits alone may be unsuitable for predicting growth of trees over broad scales. Determining the functional traits that predict vital rates under specific environmental conditions may generate more insight than a monolithic global relationship can offer.

This paper reports on the total distribution of spring migration timing of willow warbler, chiffchaff and pied flycatcher at locations in the UK, Germany, Russia and Finland. This is the first time that high-quality data based on known-effort monitoring has been examined on a continental scale. First arrival dates, commonly reported in the literature, were positively correlated with mean arrival dates although they would not make good predictors of the latter. At all locations, at least one aspect of the arrival distribution of each species had got significantly earlier in recent years. The trend towards earliness was associated with warmer local temperatures and more positive winter North Atlantic Oscillation index. In years that were early, the arrival distribution became more elongated and skewed. Researchers should now investigate the consequences of earlier arrival on current and future bird populations.

The onset of migration in birds is assumed to be primarily under endogenous control in long-distance migrants. Recently, climate changes appear to have been driving a rapid change in breeding area arrival. However, little is known about the climatic factors affecting migratory birds during the migration cycle, or whether recently reported phenological changes are caused by plastic behavioural responses or evolutionary change. Here, we investigate how environmental conditions in the wintering areas as well as en route towards breeding areas affect timing of migration. Using data from 1984 to 2004 covering the entire migration period every year from observatories located in the Middle East and northern Europe, we show that passage of the Sahara Desert is delayed and correlated with improved conditions in the wintering areas. By contrast, migrants travel more rapidly through Europe, and adjust their breeding area arrival time in response to improved environmental conditions en route . Previous studies have reported opposing results from a different migration route through the Mediterranean region (Italy). We argue that the simplest explanation for different phenological patterns at different latitudes and between migratory routes appears to be phenotypic responses to spatial variability in conditions en route .

E. 2004. Spring arrival of birds depends on the North Atlantic Oscillation. Á/ J. Avian Biol. 35: 210 Á/216.The timing of arrival of 81 migratory species in response to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) was studied at two Finnish bird observatories (1970 Á/99). Timing was determined for the first migrants and for the peak of migration, as well as for the early, median and late phases of migration, defined as the dates when the seasonal cumulative sum of birds reached 5%, 50% and 95%, respectively. For most species, the timing of arrival correlated negatively with the NAO in all phases of migration: the correlation was significant for 79% of species studied. Thus, most species arrived in Finland early when the NAO was positive and indicative of mild and rainy winters in northern Europe. Although all phases of migration correlated negatively with the NAO, the correlations were more negative for the early than for the late phases of migration. Since the NAO did not show a significant trend during the study period, the correlations indicate that the timing of birds followed stochastic fluctuations in the NAO. This finding suggests that most Finnish migratory birds are able to adjust the timing of spring arrival in response to climatic change without time delay.