The neural mechanisms that underlie responses to drugs of abuse are complex, and impacted by a number of neuromodulatory peptides. Within the past 10 years it has been discovered that several of the receptors for neuromodulators are enriched in the primary cilia of neurons. Primary cilia are microtubule‐based organelles that project from the surface of nearly all mammalian cells, including neurons. Despite what we know about cilia, our understanding of how cilia regulate neuronal function and behavior is still limited. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the contributions of primary cilia on specific neuronal populations to behavioral responses to amphetamine. To test the consequences of cilia loss on amphetamine‐induced locomotor activity we selectively ablated cilia from dopaminergic or GAD2‐GABAergic neurons in mice. Cilia loss had no effect on baseline locomotion in either mouse strain. In mice lacking cilia on dopaminergic neurons, locomotor activity compared to wild‐ type mice was reduced in both sexes in response to acute administration of 3.0 mg/kg amphetamine. In contrast, changes in the locomotor response to amphetamine in mice lacking cilia on GAD2‐GABAergic neurons were primarily driven by reductions in locomotor activity in males. Following repeated amphetamine administration (1.0 mg kg−1 day−1 over 5 days), mice lacking cilia on GAD2‐GABAergic neurons exhibited enhanced sensitization of the locomotor stimulant response to the drug, whereas mice lacking cilia on dopaminergic neurons did not differ from wild‐type controls. These results indicate that cilia play neuron‐specific roles in both acute and neuroplastic responses to psychostimulant drugs of abuse.

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Primary cilia are cellular appendages critical for diverse types of singling. They are found on most cell types, including cells throughout the central nervous system. Cilia preferentially localize certain G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and are critical for mediating the signaling of these receptors. Several of these neuronal GPCRs have recognized roles in feeding behavior and energy homeostasis. Cell and model systems likeC. elegansandChlamydomonashave implicated both dynamic GPCR cilia localization and cilia length and shape changes as key for signaling. It is unclear if mammalian ciliary GPCRs utilize similar mechanismsin vivoand under what conditions these processes may occur. Here, we assess two neuronal cilia GPCRs, melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1 (MCHR1) and neuropeptide-Y receptor 2 (NPY2R), as mammalian model ciliary receptors in the mouse brain. We test the hypothesis that dynamic localization to cilia occurs under physiological conditions associated with these GPCRs’ functions. Both receptors are involved in feeding behaviors, and MCHR1 is also associated with sleep and reward. Cilia were analyzed with a computer-assisted approach allowing for unbiased and high throughput analysis. We measured cilia frequency, length, and receptor occupancy. We observed changes in ciliary length, receptor occupancy, and cilia frequency under different conditions for one receptor but not another and in specific brain regions. These data suggest that dynamic cilia localization of GPCRs depends on properties of individual receptors and cells where they are expressed. A better understanding of subcellular localization dynamics of ciliary GPCRs could reveal unknown molecular mechanisms regulating behaviors like feeding.Significance StatementOften, primary cilia localize specific G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) for subcellular signaling. Cell lines and model systems indicate that cilia deploy dynamic GPCR localization and change their shape or length to modulate signaling. We used mice to assess neuronal cilia GPCRs under physiological conditions associated with the receptors’ known functions and ciliopathy clinical features like obesity. We show that particular cilia with specific GPCRs appear to dynamically alter their length while others appear relatively stable under these conditions. These results implicate multiple themes across cilia GPCR mediated signaling and indicate that not all cilia modulate GPCR signaling using the same mechanisms. These data will be important for potential pharmacological approaches to target cilia GPCR-mediated signaling.

Cilia on neurons play critical roles in both the development and function of the central nervous system (CNS). While it remains challenging to elucidate the precise roles for neuronal cilia, it is clear that a subset of G‐protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs) preferentially localize to the cilia membrane. Further, ciliary GPCR signaling has been implicated in regulating a variety of behaviors. Melanin concentrating hormone receptor 1 (MCHR1), is a GPCR expressed centrally in rodents known to be enriched in cilia. Here we have used MCHR1 as a model ciliary GPCR to develop a strategy to fluorescently tag receptors expressed from the endogenous locus in vivo. Using CRISPR/Cas9, we inserted the coding sequence of the fluorescent protein mCherry into the N‐terminus of Mchr1. Analysis of the fusion protein (mCherryMCHR1) revealed its localization to neuronal cilia in the CNS, across multiple developmental time points and in various regions of the adult brain. Our approach simultaneously produced fortuitous in/dels altering the Mchr1 start codon resulting in a new MCHR1 knockout line. Functional studies using electrophysiology show a significant alteration of synaptic strength in MCHR1 knockout mice. A reduction in strength is also detected in mice homozygous for the mCherry insertion, suggesting that while the strategy is useful for monitoring the receptor, activity could be altered. However, both lines should aid in studies of MCHR1 function and contribute to our understanding of MCHR1 signaling in the brain. Additionally, this approach could be expanded to aid in the study of other ciliary GPCRs.