Rationale Vascular calcification is a hallmark of atherosclerosis, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States. We have previously reported that the osteogenic transcription factor Runx2 is an essential and sufficient regulator of calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) in vitro. Objective To determine the contribution of osteogenic differentiation of VSMC to the pathogenesis of vascular calcification and the function of VSMC-derived Runx2 in regulating calcification in vivo. Methods and Results SMC-specific Runx2 deficient mice, generated by breeding SM22α-Cre mice with the Runx2 exon 8 floxed mice, exhibited normal aortic gross anatomy and expression levels of SMC-specific marker genes. Runx2 deficiency did not affect basal SMC markers, but inhibited oxidative stress-reduced expression of SMC markers. High-fat diet-induced vascular calcification in vivo was markedly inhibited in the Runx2-deficient mice compared with their control littermates. Runx2 deficiency inhibited the expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand, which was accompanied by decreased macrophage infiltration and formation of osteoclast-like cells in the calcified lesions. Co-culture of VSMC with bone marrow-derived macrophages demonstrated that the Runx2 deficient VSMC failed to promote differentiation of macrophages into osteoclast-like cells. Conclusions These data have determined the importance of osteogenic differentiation of VSMC in the pathogenesis of vascular calcification in mice and defined the functional role of SMC-derived Runx2 in regulating vascular calcification and promoting infiltration of macrophages into the calcified lesion to form osteoclast-like cells. Our studies suggest that the development of vascular calcification is coupled with the formation of osteoclast-like cells, paralleling the bone remodeling process.
Objective Clinical and experimental studies demonstrate the important roles of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. We have previously determined that osteogenic transcription factor, Runx2, is essential for VSMC calcification. The present studies characterized Runx2-regulated signals and their potential roles in vascular calcification. Methods and Results In vivo studies with atherogenic ApoE−/− mice demonstrated that increased oxidative stress was associated with upregualtion of Runx2 and receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL), which colocalized in the calcified atherosclerotic lesions and were juxtaposed to infiltrated macrophages and osteoclast-like cells that are positively stained for an osteoclast marker, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP). Mechanistic studies using RNA interfering, a luciferase reporter system, chromatin immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility shift assays identified that Runx2 regulated the expression of RANKL via a direct binding to the 5'-flanking region of the RANKL. Functional characterization revealed that RANKL did not induce VSMC calcification, nor RANKL was required for oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification. Using a co-culture system, we demonstrated VSMC-expressed RANKL induced migration as well as differentiation of bone marrow-derived macrophages into multinucleated, TRAP-positive osteoclast-like cells. These effects were inhibited by the RANKL antagonist, osteoprotegerin, and with VSMC deficient in Runx2 or RANKL. Conclusions We demonstrate that Runx2 directly binds to the promoter and controls the expression of RANKL, which mediates the crosstalk between calcifying VSMC and migration and differentiation of macrophages into osteoclast-like cells in the atherosclerotic lesions. Our studies provide novel mechanistic insights into the regulation and function of VSMC-derived RANKL in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and vascular calcification.
Rationale Vascular calcification is a serious cardiovascular complication that contributes to the increased morbidity and mortality of patients with diabetes. Hyperglycemia, a hallmark of diabetes, is associated with increased vascular calcification as well as increased modification of proteins by O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAcylation). Objective We sought to determine the role of protein O-GlcNAcylation in regulating vascular calcification and the underlying mechanisms. Methods and Results Low-dose streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice exhibited increased aortic O-GlcNAcylation and vascular calcification, which also was associated with impaired aortic compliance in mice. Elevation of O-GlcNAcylation by administration of Thiamet-G, a potent inhibitor for O-GlcNAcase (OGA) that removes O-GlcNAcylation, further accelerated vascular calcification and worsened aortic compliance of diabetic mice in vivo. Increased O-GlcNAcylation, either by Thiamet-G or OGA knockdown, promoted calcification of primary mouse vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). Increased O-GlcNAcylation in diabetic arteries or in the OGA knockdown VSMC upregulated expression of the osteogenic transcription factor Runx2 and enhanced activation of AKT. O-GlcNAcylation of AKT at two new O-sites, T430 and T479, promoted AKT phosphorylation, which in turn enhanced VSMC calcification. Site-directed mutation of AKT at T430 and T479 decreased O-GlcNAcylation, inhibited phosphorylation of AKT at S473 and binding of mTOR complex 2 to AKT, and subsequently blocked Runx2 transactivity and VSMC calcification. Conclusions O-GlcNAcylation of AKT at two new sites enhanced AKT phosphorylation and activation, thus promoting vascular calcification. Our studies have identified a novel causative effect of O-GlcNAcylation in regulating vascular calcification in diabetes and uncovered a key molecular mechanism underlying O-GlcNAcylation-mediated activation of AKT.
Purpose Activating extrinsic apoptotic pathways targeting death receptors (DR) using agonistic antibodies or tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is promising for cancer therapy. However, most pancreatic cancers are resistant to TRAIL therapy. The present studies aimed to identify combination therapies that enhance the efficacy of TRAIL therapy; and to investigate the underlying mechanisms. Experimental Design A xenograft model in nude mice was used to determine pancreatic cancer tumorigenesis and therapeutic efficacy of TRA-8, a monoclonal agonistic antibody for DR5. Pancreatic cancer cells were used to characterize mechanisms underlying poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) in regulating TRA-8-induced apoptosis in vitro. Results PARP-1 was found highly expressed in the TRA-8-resistant PANC-1 and Suit-2 cells, compared with TRA-8-sensitive BxPc-3 and MiaPaca-2. Inhibition of PARP-1 with a pharmacologic inhibitor sensitized PANC-1 and Suit2 cells to TRA-8 induced apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, small interfering RNAs specifically knocking down PARP-1 markedly enhanced TRA-8-induced apoptosis in vitro, and augmented the efficacy of TRA-8 therapy on tumorigenesis in vivo. PARP-1 knockdown increased TRA-8-induced activation of caspase-8 in the death-induced signaling complex (DISC). Immuoprecipitation with DR5 antibody identified the recruitment of PARP-1 and PARP-1-mediated protein poly-ADP-ribosylation(pADPr) modification in the DR5-associated DISC. Further characterization revealed that PARP-1-mediated pADPr modification of caspase-8 inhibited caspase-8 activation, which may contribute to its function in regulating TRA-8 resistance. Conclusions Our studies not only provide novel molecular insights into the function of PARP-1 in regulating the extrinsic apoptosis machinery, but also support interventions combining PARP-1 inhibitors with death receptor agonists for pancreatic cancer therapy.
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