In this article, we pursue the objective of empirically testing the extent to which changes in environmental policy outputs can explain changes in environmental impacts. Previously, systematic testing of this relationship was hampered by the lack of a compelling measurement of changes in regulatory policy outputs. To remedy this, we present a novel approach to the measurement of events of regulatory output change. We illustrate our concept by employing data on changes in clean air regulations in 24 advanced democracies from 1976 to 2003. In a next step, we explore the extent to which changes in clean air regulations can account for changes in air pollutant emissions. The empirical analysis suggests that changes in clean air regulations cannot be unconditionally associated with changing intensities of air pollutant emission. We deem these results to have far-reaching implications for the study of regulatory policy change.

Strengthening governance is an essential strategy to tackling antimicrobial resistance (AMR) at all levels; global, national, regional and local. To date, no systematic approach to governance of AMR national action plans (NAPs) exists. To address this, we aimed to develop the first governance framework to offer guidance for both the development and assessment of AMR national action plans (NAPs). We reviewed health system governance framework reviews to inform the basic structure of our framework, international guidance documents from the WHO, FAO, OIE and the EU, and sought the input of over 25 experts from international organizations, government ministries, policy institutes and academic institutions to develop and refine our framework. The framework consists of 18 domains with 52 indicators that are contained within three governance areas: "policy design", "implementation tools", and "monitoring and evaluation". To consider the dynamic nature of AMR, the framework is conceptualized as a cyclical process, which is responsive to the context and allows for continuous improvement and adaptation of AMR NAPs. Key messages • Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is one of the most pressing and complex issues today, with multi drug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and even pan drug-resistant organisms emerging. • AMR is driven by interrelated dynamics in the human, animal, and environmental health sectors, which makes governance challenging. • Strengthening governance of AMR policies at all levels; global, national, regional and local, is essential to tackling AMR. To date, no comprehensive framework for the governance of AMR National Action Plans (NAPs) has been developed. • To our knowledge, this is the first study that has developed a governance framework for AMR NAPs, based on a systematic review of the literature, international guidance, and over 20 experts from various international organizations, government ministries, policy institutes and academic institutions • The framework is conceptualized as a cyclical process between the three governance areas; policy design, implementation tools, and monitoring and evaluation.

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