Rainfall variability and water scarcity continue to hamper the food and income security of smallholder farming systems in poverty-affected regions. Innovations in soil and water management, especially in the drylands, are critical for meeting food security and water productivity targets of Agenda 2030. This study analyzes how rainfed agriculture can be intensified with marginal impact on the landscape water balance. The impact of rainwater harvesting structures on landscape hydrology and associated agricultural services was analyzed in the semi-arid Jhansi district of Bundelkhand region in central India. The Parasai-Sindh pilot watershed was subjected to a 5-year (2012-2016) monitoring of rainfed system improvements in water availability and crop intensification due to surface water storage (haveli system), check dams, and field infiltration structures. Hydrological processes were monitored intensively to analyze the landscape's water balance components. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) structures altered the landscape's hydrology, limiting average surface runoff from 250 mm/year to 150 mm/year over the study period. Groundwater levels increased by 2-5 m (m), alleviating water scarcity issues of the communities in recurring dry years. Nearly 20% of fallow lands were brought under cultivation.

Many environmental benefits result from watershed interventions in the semi-arid tropics. Environmental benefits may be defined as the condition and process through which ecosystems sustain and fulfill human life, including the provision of food and other goods. The spillover effects of these benefits range from an increase in household welfare condition to ecosystem sustainability. An attempt is made in this paper to assess these benefits in the context of Indian Semiarid tropics using primary data collected from two micro watersheds (Rajasamadhiyala and Shekta watersheds). Results indicate that groundwater availability has substantially increased and soil conservation has brought changes in cropping patterns with high-value crops. Rainwater harvesting through check dams, causeway cum check dams, percolation tanks, farm ponds and earthen bunds have significantly increased water storage capacity and water availability along with doubling the production of major crops. Significant increases in irrigated area, cropping intensity along with diversification of crops from traditional to commercial cash crops were recorded in the watersheds. Assessing the environmental benefits accrued from the watershed development approach may lead to the identification of 'keystone elements' in a landscape that have a substantial impact by providing multi-functions. The integrated watershed management practices adopted in the two micro watersheds substantially improved the sustainability in these watersheds. Using available methods we have assessed the environmental benefits of micro watersheds in the Indian semi-arid tropics.

Agricultural water management (AWM) interventions play an important role in ensuring sustainable food production and mitigating climate risks. This study was carried out in a watershed located in a low rainfall (400-600 mm) region of western India. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool model was calibrated using surface runoff, soil loss, and reservoir storage levels, between the year 2000 and 2006. The investigation indicated that the various AWM interventions increased groundwater recharge from 30 mm/year to 80 mm/year and reduced surface runoff from 250 mm/year to 100 mm/year. The intervention structures were refilled two to three times during the monsoon season depending on rainfall intensity and duration. The interventions have the advantage of building a resilient system by enhancing groundwater availability even in dry years, stimulating crop intensification and protecting the landscape from severe erosion. The results indicate that soil erosion has been reduced by more than 75% compared to the nonintervention situation. Moreover, the AWM interventions led to the cultivation of 100-150 ha of fallow land with high-value crops (horticulture, vegetables, and fodder). Household income increased by several folds compared to the nonintervention situation. The study showed about 50% reduction in downstream water availability, which could be a major concern. However, there are a number of ecosystem trade-offs such as improved base flow to the stream and reduction in soil loss that should be considered. The study is of great importance to stakeholders to decide on the optimal design for AWM interventions to achieve sustainable development goals.

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PurposeLaser land leveling (LLL) is a climate-smart technology that improves water use efficiency and reduces risk in crop cultivation due to weather variability. Hence, this technology is useful for cultivating water-intensive crops in a sustainable way. Given this background, the state government of Karnataka initiated to promote LLL in drought-prone districts and selected Raichur district for implementation. Moreover, farmers in this district had observed drought situation during monsoon paddy growing season in 2018. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate the importance of LLL technology for paddy cultivation under drought conditions.Design/methodology/approachA primary survey with 604 farmer households had been conducted in Raichur in 2018. Among them, 50% are adopters of LLL who have been selected purposively and rest 50% are non-adopters who have grown paddy in the adjacent or nearest plot of the laser-leveled plot. The adoption and causal impact of LLL has been estimated using propensity score matching, coarsened exact matching and endogenous switching regression methods.FindingsThe result reveals a positive and significant impact of LLL on paddy yield and net returns to the farmers. The results indicate an increment of 12 and 16% in rice yield and net income, respectively, for LLL adopters in comparison to the non-adopters of LLL.Research limitations/implicationsThe major limitation of the study is that it does not adopt the method of experimental study due to certain limitations; hence, the authors employed a quasi-experimental method to look at the possible impact of adoption of LL.Originality/valueThere have been various agronomic studies focusing on the ex-ante assessment of the LLL. This study is an ex-post assessment of the technology on the crop yield and farmers' income in a dry semi-arid region of India, which, according to the authors, is the first in this approach.

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Sustainable intensification and improvement in farm-based livelihoods particularly in dryland tropics are the biggest challenges of the century. Widespread soil degradation, growing water scarcity, and looming threat of climate change further compound the problem of achieving food and nutritional security along with improved livelihoods. Large yield gaps in drylands provide a huge opportunity to increase the food production for future food security and mainstreaming of drylands. Soil management for correcting micro and secondary nutrient deficiencies has shown to increase crop productivity by 20-66% in Karnataka, India. During 2009-2013 in this state, more than 5 million farmers benefitted and net economic benefits through increased production were estimated to the tune of US$353 million (Rs. 1963 crores). Balanced nutrition led to increased nitrogen uptake efficiency, utilization efficiency, and use efficiency for grain yield and harvest index. Best practices like soil test-based fertilization including micronutrients and improved cultivars also contribute to increasing rainwater use efficiency in crops by channelizing unproductive evaporation loss into productive transpiration. In current rainy fallow regions, the landform management like broadbed and furrow along with balanced nutrition has shown that fallow lands in black soil regions in Madhya Pradesh can be successfully cultivated to grow soybean crop. Similarly soil fertility management along with other best practices provides opportunities for intensification through cultivating 11.4 million ha rice fallow in India by growing of early maturing chickpea. Thus, efficient rainy and post-rice fallow management is a way forward to enhance land Keywords Agriculture • Incomes • Nutrient use efficiency • Soil degradation • Water use efficiency water harvesting, as soil moisture during monsoon period is lost through the nonproductive evaporation resulting in poor water use efficiency. In India, population is expected to increase from the current 1.21 billion in 2011 (Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India 2014) to the expected 1.69 billion by 2050 (FAOSTAT 2013). Within existing land and water constraints, India must sustainably increase the productivity levels of the major rainfed crops to meet the everincreasing demand of food to around 380 million tons in 2050 (Amarasinghe et al. 2007). Nearly 55% of the population in India is dependent on agriculture and allied sectors for their livelihoods, and agriculture contributes only around 14% to the nation's gross domestic production (GDP) (Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India 2014). The total cultivable land in India is 141 million ha with a cropping intensity of 135%. Indian agriculture is essentially small farm agriculture with majority of farmers' owning less than 1 ha of land, and 83% of farmers represent small farming households (Directorate...