Two meta-analyses of 66 behavioral studies examined variables influencing functional cerebral lateralization of each language of brain-intact bilingual adults. Functional lateralization was found to be primarily influenced by age of onset of bilingualism: bilinguals who acquired both languages by 6 years of age showed bilateral hemispheric involvement for both languages, whereas those who acquired their second language after age 6 showed left hemisphere dominance for both languages. Moreover, among late bilinguals, left hemisphere involvement was found to be greater for those less proficient in their second language, those whose second language was English, and for studies involving dichotic listening paradigms; early bilinguals instead showed bilateral involvement in every condition. Implications of the observed differences in lateralization between early and late bilinguals are explored for existing theories of bilingualism and for neurocognitive models of brain functional organization of language.
Perceptions of happy facial affect from asymmetric composite faces presented in free vision were compared in four groups: left-to-right readers (Hindi), right-to-left readers (Arabic), left-to-right and right-to-left readers (Hindi/Urdu) and illiterates (Hindi/Urdu). Right- and left-handed users of Hindi and Urdu were studied. The analysis of asymmetry scores revealed a significant effect of Group, such that a left hemifield preference was present only in the left-to-right (Hindi) group. There were no reliable differences between right- and left-handers. Furthermore, the leftward bias was present in a significantly larger proportion of Hindi than Urdu or Arabic readers. These results are taken to reflect an interaction between a cerebral laterality effect and a directional scanning effect in facial affect judgment.
he human mind is an enormously creative instrument. Our ability to T go beyond concrete experiences to produce novel ideas is one of our most salient characteristics. Whether it be a scientist proposing a theory, an author imagining a character, a parent dreaming up an activity to entertain children, or a speaker seeking a figurative way to express a thought, humans are constantly about the business of constructing and modifying new mental representations that are relevant to some goal. Indeed, it is our capacity for this type of creative, generative thought that distinguishes us most clearly from other species. Thus, it is surprising that, with some notable exceptions, mainstream cognitive psychologists have eschewed direct, systematic attempts to understand the ways in which people generate and extrapolate on new ideas, that is, the way they function creatively.How is it that the science of the mind has for so long ignored one of the most obvious properties of its central object of study? The answers are many and varied (e.g., see Finke, Ward, & Smith, 1992), but rather than dwell on them here, we simply try to articulate the dual case that a complete account of human cognition requires an explication of the ways in which cognition is generative and that a complete account of creativity re-1
The influence of second language proficiency and length of formal training in interpretation on simultaneous interpreting (SI) performance and working memory was examined in Mandarin–English student interpreters with one year ( n = 11) or two years of formal training in interpretation ( n = 9) and in 16 Mandarin–English untrained bilingual controls. SI performance was significantly better in Year 2 than in Year 1 student interpreters, and in Year 1 interpreters relative to bilingual controls. SI performance was also better in advanced L2 users and in high-memory span individuals, whether trained or not in SI. Both Year 1 and Year 2 students outperformed bilingual controls in L1 and L2 reading span. Although Year 2 students tended to show higher working memory span than Year 1 students, the difference was not significant. Finally, working memory span was higher in individuals with greater L2 proficiency. It is concluded that differences in language proficiency may underlie observed differences in both interpreting performance and working memory and that language processing skills (rather than working memory) may be enhanced by formal training in interpreting.
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