Smallholder agricultural systems, strongly dependent on water resources and investments in shared infrastructure, make a significant contribution to food security in developing countries. These communities are being increasingly integrated into the global economy and are exposed to new global climate-related risks that may affect their willingness to cooperate in community-level collective action problems. We performed field experiments on public goods with private and collective risks in 118 small-scale rice-producing communities in four countries. Our results indicate that increasing the integration of those communities with the broader economic system is associated with lower investments in public goods when facing collective risks. These findings indicate that local public good provision may be negatively affected by collective risks, especially in communities more integrated with the market economy.framed field experiments | commons | irrigation | public goods | risk

To investigate pesticide use and prevention practices of tangerine growers in Fang district, Chiang Mai province in Northern Thailand. A questionnaire survey of 312 farmers in the study area, in-depth interviews and group discussions. Only 36% of the participants pursued the recommended prevention practices every time they used pesticides. Methomyl which is on the watch list of chemicals was used by 87.8% participants. Cultivating experience and pesticides use experience contributed significantly to the use and prevention practices of growers, while the attendance in the training program did not contribute in the same way. The farmers rather believed in their experiences and those of their neighbors. Education, training and research into harmful effects and the health and environmental costs of pesticide use are needed. The extension workers can go directly to weak points and narrow their intervention plan to alter the pesticide policy instead of providing basic knowledge on pesticides again and again. Knowledge of pesticide prevention practices did not make tangerine growers protect themselves against pesticides or reduce their exposure to chemicals. The training program did not work as the key of extension and should not be presented as one.

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