While distinct stages of natural killer (NK) cell development have been defined, the molecular interactions that shape human NK cell maturation are poorly understood. Here we define intercellular interactions between developing NK cells and stromal cells which, through contact-dependent mechanisms, promote the generation of mature, functional human NK cells from CD34+ precursors. We show that developing NK cells undergo unique, developmental stage-specific sustained and transient interactions with developmentally supportive stromal cells, and that the relative motility of NK cells increases as they move through development in vitro and ex vivo. These interactions include the formation of a synapse between developing NK cells and stromal cells, which we term the developmental synapse. Finally, we identify a role for CD56 in developmental synapse structure, NK cell motility and NK cell development. Thus, we define the developmental synapse leading to human NK cell functional maturation.

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Natural killer (NK) cells are innate immune cells that control viral infection and tumorigenic cell growth through targeted cell lysis and cytokine secretion. Human NK cells are classically defined as CD56 + CD3 − in peripheral blood. CD56 is neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM1), and despite its ubiquitous expression on human NK cells, the role of CD56 in human NK cell cytotoxic function has not been fully explored. In non-immune cells, NCAM can induce signaling, mediate adhesion, and promote exocytosis, in part through interactions with focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Here we describe the generation and use of CD56-deficient human NK cell lines to define a novel requirement for CD56 in target cell lysis. Namely, we demonstrate that deletion of CD56 on the NK92 cell line led to impaired cytotoxic function against multiple susceptible target cell lines. Deletion of CD56 in a second NK cell line, YTS cells, led to a less severe cytotoxicity defect but impairment in cytokine secretion. Confocal microscopy of wild-type and CD56-KO NK92 cells conjugated to susceptible targets revealed that CD56-KO cells failed to polarize during immunological synapse (IS) formation and had severely impaired exocytosis of lytic granules at the IS. Phosphorylation of the FAK family member Pyk2 at tyrosine 402 was decreased in NK92 CD56-KO cells, demonstrating a functional link between CD56 and IS formation and signaling in human NK cells. Cytotoxicity, lytic granule exocytosis, and the phosphorylation of Pyk2 were rescued by the reintroduction of NCAM140 (CD56), into NK92 CD56-KO cells. These data highlight a novel functional role for CD56 in stimulating exocytosis and promoting cytotoxicity in human NK cells. cytotoxicity | natural killer cell | NCAM | CD56 Correspondence: em3375@cumc.columbia.edu 2 | bioRχiv Mace et al. | CD56 and human NK cell cytotoxicity

Natural killer (NK) cell lines, including YTS, NK92, NK3.3, and NKL, represent excellent models for the study of human natural killer cells. While phenotypic and functional differences between these cell lines have been reported, a multi-parametric study, encompassing genomic, phenotypic, and functional assays, has not been performed. Here, using a combination of techniques including microarray and copy number analyses, flow cytometry, and functional assays, we provide in-depth genetic, functional, and phenotypic comparison of YTS, NK92, NK3.3, and NKL cell lines. Specifically, we found that while the cell lines shared similarities in enrichment of growth and survival pathways, they had differential expression of 557 genes, including genes related to NK cell development, survival, and function. In addition, we provide genetic and phenotypic analyses that demonstrate distinct developmental origins of NK92, YTS, and NKL cell lines. Specifically, NK92 has a phenotype associated with the CD56 NK cell subset, while both YTS and NKL appear more CD56-like. Finally, by classifying cell lines based on their lytic potential, we identified genes differentially expressed between NK cell lines with high and low lytic function. Taken together, these data provide the first comprehensive genetic, phenotypic, and functional analyses of these commonly used NK cell lines and provides deeper understanding into their origins and function. This will ultimately improve their use as models for human NK cell biology.

Human natural killer (NK) cells are defined as CD56+CD3−. Despite its ubiquitous expression on human NK cells the role of CD56 (NCAM) in human NK cell cytotoxic function has not been defined. In non-immune cells, NCAM can induce signaling, mediate adhesion, and promote exocytosis through interactions with focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Here we demonstrate that deletion of CD56 on the NK92 cell line leads to impaired cytotoxic function. CD56-knockout (KO) cells fail to polarize during immunological synapse (IS) formation and have severely impaired exocytosis of lytic granules. Phosphorylation of the FAK family member Pyk2 at tyrosine 402 is decreased in NK92 CD56-KO cells, demonstrating a functional link between CD56 and signaling in human NK cells. Cytotoxicity, lytic granule exocytosis, and the phosphorylation of Pyk2 are rescued by the reintroduction of CD56. These data highlight a novel functional role for CD56 in stimulating exocytosis and promoting cytotoxicity in human NK cells.

Driving under the influence (DUI) and DUI drugs (DUID) law enforcement (LE) cases (n = 12,082) where whole blood samples were submitted to ChemaTox Laboratory, Inc. in Boulder, CO, for testing were examined. Of these 12,082 cases, there were 4,235 cannabinoid screens (CS) requested. Samples that yielded a positive CS (n = 2,621) were further analyzed. A total of 1,848 samples were confirmed for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) after a positive CS. Due to a decrease in the confirmation limit of detection (LOD) for THC from 2 to 1 ng/mL, samples that were confirmed for THC and quantitated below 2 ng/mL (n = 250) were considered negative. After this normalization, there were 1,598 samples that were confirmed positive for THC and included in the analysis. The percentage of LE cases with requests for CS for all years was 35%, increasing from 28% in 2011 to 37% in 2013. The positivity rate of CS overall was 62% (range: 59-68% by year) with no significant change over the time frame examined. The percentage of positive CS in which THC was confirmed positive at or above 2 ng/mL (n = 1,598) increased significantly from 28% in 2011 to 65% in 2013. The mean and median THC concentrations were 8.1 and 6.3 ng/mL, respectively (range: 2-192 ng/mL, n = 1,367). The data presented illustrate a statistically significant increase in CS that result in positive THC confirmations. Although the specific cause of this increase is not known at this time, possible ties to ongoing developments in Colorado's marijuana legislation merit further analysis.

BackgroundSuccessful targeting of solid tumors with TCR-engineered T cells (TCR-T) will require eliciting of antigen-specific, multi-dimensional, sustained anti-tumor immune response by infused T cells while overcoming the suppressive tumor microenvironment. First-generation TCR-T approaches have demonstrated clinical efficacy in some solid cancers. However, effective treatment across several solid tumor indications may require engineered T cells with enhanced anti-tumor activity. Here, we show pre-clinical data from one of the engineering approaches currently being developed for next-generation ACTengine® TCR-T product candidates. We evaluated the impact of co-expression of different CD8 co-receptors on functionality of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells genetically modified with an HLA class I-restricted TCR and determined the depth and durability of anti-tumor response in vitro.MethodsHere, we used a PRAME-specific TCR currently being tested in the ACTengine® IMA203 clinical trial. T cells expressing either the TCR alone or co-expressing the TCR and CD8α homodimer (TCR.CD8α) or CD8αβ heterodimer (TCR.CD8αβ) were characterized for transgene expression, antigen-recognition, and functional efficacy in vitro. Comprehensive evaluation of CD4+ T cells expressing TCR.CD8α or TCR.CD8αβ was performed focusing on cytotoxic potential and the breadth of cytokine response against target-positive tumor cell lines.ResultsIntroduction of CD8α or CD8αβ enabled detection of transgenic TCR on the surface of CD4+ T cells via HLA multimer-guided flow cytometry otherwise lacking in the TCR only transduced T cells. Co-expression of either form of CD8 co-receptor endowed CD4+ T cells with the ability to recognize and kill target positive tumor cells; however, genetic modification with TCR.CD8αβ led to more pronounced CD4+ T cell activation as compared to TCR.CD8α. Most distinct differences were observed in the breadth and magnitude of cytokine responses, less in cytotoxic activity against tumor cells. T cells expressing TCR.CD8αβ showed superior induction of Th1 cytokines e.g. IFNγ, TNFα, IL-2, GM-CSF in vitro upon antigen stimulation as compared to TCR.CD8α-T cells. Additionally, TCR.CD8αβ T cells demonstrated more efficient engagement with antigen-presenting cells and consequently, modulation of cytokine response than TCR.CD8α-T cells.ConclusionsOur findings illustrate that engaging CD4+ T cells via CD8 co-expression potentiates anti-tumor activity of HLA class I restricted TCR-T cells in vitro. The pleiotropic effects mediated by activated CD4+ T cells including acquired cytotoxicity may potentially improve outcomes in solid tumor patients when applied clinically. In addition, the differential functional profile of TCR-T cells co-expressing either CD8α or CD8αβ suggests that optimizing the type of co-receptor is relevant to maximize anti-tumor response.

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