High-dimensional PDEs have been a longstanding computational challenge. We propose to solve highdimensional PDEs by approximating the solution with a deep neural network which is trained to satisfy the differential operator, initial condition, and boundary conditions. Our algorithm is meshfree, which is key since meshes become infeasible in higher dimensions. Instead of forming a mesh, the neural network is trained on batches of randomly sampled time and space points. The algorithm is tested on a class of high-dimensional free boundary PDEs, which we are able to accurately solve in up to 200 dimensions. The algorithm is also tested on a high-dimensional Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman PDE and Burgers' equation. The deep learning algorithm approximates the general solution to the Burgers' equation for a continuum of different boundary conditions and physical conditions (which can be viewed as a high-dimensional space). We call the algorithm a "Deep Galerkin Method (DGM)" since it is similar in spirit to Galerkin methods, with the solution approximated by a neural network instead of a linear combination of basis functions. In addition, we prove a theorem regarding the approximation power of neural networks for a class of quasilinear parabolic PDEs. Deep learning and high-dimensional PDEsHigh-dimensional partial differential equations (PDEs) are used in physics, engineering, and finance. Their numerical solution has been a longstanding challenge. Finite difference methods become infeasible in higher dimensions due to the explosion in the number of grid points and the demand for reduced time step size. If there are d space dimensions and 1 time dimension, the mesh is of size O d+1 . This quickly becomes computationally intractable when the dimension d becomes even moderately large. We propose to solve high-dimensional PDEs using a meshfree deep learning algorithm. The method is similar in spirit to the Galerkin method, but with several key changes using ideas from machine learning. The Galerkin method is a widely-used computational method which seeks a reduced-form solution to a PDE as a linear combination of basis functions. The deep learning algorithm, or "Deep Galerkin Method" (DGM), uses a deep neural network instead of a linear combination of basis functions. The deep neural network is trained to satisfy the differential operator, initial condition, and boundary conditions using stochastic gradient descent at randomly sampled spatial points. By randomly sampling spatial points, we avoid the need to form a mesh (which is infeasible in higher dimensions) and instead convert the PDE problem into a machine learning problem.DGM is a natural merger of Galerkin methods and machine learning. The algorithm in principle is straightforward; see Section 2. Promising numerical results are presented later in Section 4 for a class *
Using a large-scale Deep Learning approach applied to a high-frequency database containing billions of electronic market quotes and transactions for US equities, we uncover nonparametric evidence for the existence of a universal and stationary price formation mechanism relating the dynamics of supply and demand for a stock, as revealed through the order book, to subsequent variations in its market price. We assess the model by testing its out-of-sample predictions for the direction of price moves given the history of price and order flow, across a wide range of stocks and time periods. The universal price formation model exhibits a remarkably stable out-of-sample prediction accuracy across time, for a wide range of stocks from different sectors. Interestingly, these results also hold for stocks which are not part of the training sample, showing that the relations captured by the model are universal and not asset-specific.The universal model -trained on data from all stocks -outperforms, in terms of out-of-sample prediction accuracy, asset-specific linear and nonlinear models trained on time series of any given stock, showing that the universal nature of price formation weighs in favour of pooling together financial data from various stocks, rather than designing asset-or sector-specific models as commonly done. Standard data normalizations based on volatility, price level or average spread, or partitioning the training data into sectors or categories such as large/small tick stocks, do not improve training results. On the other hand, inclusion of price and order flow history over many past observations improves forecasting performance, showing evidence of path-dependence in price dynamics.
We rigorously prove a central limit theorem for neural network models with a single hidden layer. The central limit theorem is proven in the asymptotic regime of simultaneously (A) large numbers of hidden units and (B) large numbers of stochastic gradient descent training iterations. Our result describes the neural network's fluctuations around its mean-field limit. The fluctuations have a Gaussian distribution and satisfy a stochastic partial differential equation. The proof relies upon weak convergence methods from stochastic analysis. In particular, we prove relative compactness for the sequence of processes and uniqueness of the limiting process in a suitable Sobolev space.
We analyze multi-layer neural networks in the asymptotic regime of simultaneously (A) large network sizes and (B) large numbers of stochastic gradient descent training iterations. We rigorously establish the limiting behavior of the multi-layer neural network output. The limit procedure is valid for any number of hidden layers and it naturally also describes the limiting behavior of the training loss. The ideas that we explore are to (a) take the limits of each hidden layer sequentially and (b) characterize the evolution of parameters in terms of their initialization. The limit satisfies a system of deterministic integro-differential equations. The proof uses methods from weak convergence and stochastic analysis. We show that, under suitable assumptions on the activation functions and the behavior for large times, the limit neural network recovers a global minimum (with zero loss for the objective function). IntroductionMachine learning, and in particular deep learning, has achieved immense practical success, revolutionizing fields such as image, text, and speech recognition. It is also increasingly being used in engineering, medicine, and finance. However, despite their success in practice, there is currently limited mathematical understanding of deep neural networks. This has motivated recent mathematical research on multi-layer learning models such as [39], [40], [41], [20], [21], [42], [49], [50], [43], and [48].Neural networks are nonlinear statistical models whose parameters are estimated from data using stochastic gradient descent (SGD) methods. Deep learning uses neural networks with many layers (i.e., "deep" neural networks), which produces a highly flexible, powerful and effective model in practice. Typically, a neural network with multiple layers between the input and the output layer is called a "deep" neural network, see for example [24]. We analyze multi-layer neural networks that have a fixed number of layers between the input and output layer, and where the number of hidden units in each layer becomes large.Applications of deep learning include image recognition (see [35] and [24]), facial recognition [59], driverless cars [6], speech recognition (see [35], [4], [36], and [60]), and text recognition (see [62] and [57]). Neural networks also find increasing more applications in engineering, robotics, medicine, and finance (see [37], [38], [58], [26], [47], [3], [51], [52], [53], and [54]).In this paper we characterize multi-layer neural networks in the asymptotic regime of large network sizes and large numbers of stochastic gradient descent iterations. We rigorously prove the limit of the neural network output as the number of hidden units increases to infinity. The proof relies upon weak convergence analysis for stochastic processes. The result can be considered a "law of large numbers" for the neural network's output when both the network size and the number of stochastic gradient descent steps grow to infinity. We show that the neural network output in the large hidden-units and large SGD-iterat...
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