Background: Here, we investigated whether iron mobilization enhanced photodynamic therapy (PDT)-induced cell killing. Results: Lysosomal iron release and mitochondrial iron uptake through mitoferrin-2 (Mfrn2) acted synergistically to induce PDT-mediated and iron-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction and cell killing. Conclusion: Mfrn2 plays a critical role in transporting iron to mitochondria to enhance PDT. Significance: Head and neck cancers expressing higher Mfrn2 protein levels benefit more from PDT.

Background/Aims The mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and inflammation play important roles in liver injury caused by ischemia-reperfusion (IR). This study investigated the roles of sphingosine kinase-2 (SK2) in mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation after hepatic IR. Methods Mice were gavaged with vehicle or ABC294640 (50 mg/kg), a selective inhibitor of SK2, 1 h before surgery and subjected to 1 h-warm ischemia to ~70% of the liver followed by reperfusion. Results Following IR, hepatic SK2 mRNA and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) levels increased ~25-fold and 3-fold, respectively. SK2 inhibition blunted S1P production and liver injury by 54% to 91%, and increased mouse survival from 28% to 100%. At 2 h after reperfusion, mitochondrial depolarization was observed in 74% of viable hepatocytes, and mitochondrial voids excluding calcein disappeared, indicating MPT onset in vivo. SK2 inhibition decreased mitochondrial depolarization and prevented MPT onset. Inducible nitric oxide synthase, phosphorylated NFκB-p65, TNFα mRNA, and neutrophil infiltration all increased markedly after hepatic IR, and these increases were blunted by SK2 inhibition. In cultured hepatocytes, anoxia/reoxygenation resulted in increases of SK2 mRNA, S1P levels and cell death. SK2 siRNA and ABC294640 each substantially decreased S1P production and cell death in cultured hepatocytes. Conclusions SK2 plays an important role in mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation responses, hepatocyte death and survival after hepatic IR and represents a new target for the treatment of IR injury.

Minocycline, a tetracycline-derived compound, mitigates damage caused by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Here, 19 tetracycline-derived compounds were screened in comparison to minocycline for their ability to protect hepatocytes against damage from chemical hypoxia and I/R injury. Cultured rat hepatocytes were incubated with 50 μM of each tetracycline-derived compound 20 min prior to exposure to 500 μM iodoacetic acid plus 1 mM KCN (chemical hypoxia). In other experiments, hepatocytes were incubated in anoxic Krebs-Ringer-Hepes buffer (KRH) at pH 6.2 for 4 h prior to reoxygenation at pH 7.4 (simulated I/R). Tetracycline-derived compounds were added 20 min prior to reperfusion. Ca2+ uptake was measured in isolated rat liver mitochondria incubated with Fluo-5N. Cell killing after 120 min of chemical hypoxia measured by propidium iodide (PI) fluorometery was 87%, which decreased to 28% and 42% with minocycline and doxycycline, respectively. After I/R, cell killing at 120 min decreased from 79% with vehicle to 43% and 49% with minocycline and doxycycline. No other tested compound decreased killing. Minocycline and doxycycline also inhibited mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and suppressed the Ca2+-induced mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), the penultimate cause of cell death in reperfusion injury. Ru360, a specific inhibitor of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU), also decreased cell killing after hypoxia and I/R and blocked mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and the MPT. Other proposed mechanisms, including mitochondrial depolarization and matrix metalloprotease inhibition could not account for cytoprotection. Taken together, these results indicate that minocycline and doxycycline are cytoprotective by way of inhibition of MCU.

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Background Despite recovery of hemodynamics by fluid resuscitation after hemorrhage, development of the systemic inflammatory response and multiple organ dysfunction syndromes can nonetheless lead to death. Minocycline and doxycycline are tetracycline derivatives that are protective in models of hypoxic, ischemic and oxidative stress. Our Aim was to determine whether minocycline and doxycycline protect liver and kidney and improve survival in a mouse model of hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation. Methods Mice were hemorrhaged to 30 mm Hg for 3 h and then resuscitated with shed blood followed by half the shed volume of lactated Ringer's solution containing tetracycline (10 mg/kg), minocycline (10 mg/kg), doxycycline (5 mg/kg) or vehicle. For pre-plus post-treatment, drugs were administered intraperitoneally prior to hemorrhage followed by second equal dose in Ringer's solution after blood resuscitation. Blood and tissue were harvested after 6 h. Results Serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) increased to 1988 and 1878 U/L after post-treatment with vehicle and tetracycline, respectively, whereas minocycline and doxycycline post-treatment decreased ALT to 857 and 863 U/L. Pre-plus post-treatment with minocycline and doxycycline also decreased ALT to 849 and 834 U/L. After vehicle, blood creatinine increased to 279 μM, which minocycline and doxycycline post-treatment decreased to 118 and 112 μM. Minocycline and doxycycline pre- plus post-treatment decreased creatinine similarly. Minocycline and doxycycline also decreased necrosis and apoptosis in liver and apoptosis in both liver and kidney, the latter assessed by TUNEL and caspase-3 activation. Lastly after 4.5 h of hemorrhage followed by resuscitation, minocycline and doxycycline (but not tetracycline) post-treatment improved 1-week survival from 38%(vehicle) to 69% and 67%, respectively. Conclusion Minocycline and doxycycline were similarly protective when given before as after blood resuscitation and might therefore have clinical efficacy to mitigate liver and kidney injury after resuscitated hemorrhage.

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Reactive oxygen species (ROS) initiate onset of the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and play a key role in IR injury. Iron is a critical catalyst for ROS generation. Accordingly, our aim was to investigate the role of chelatable iron in ROS‐dependent MPT formation and cell death during IR to rat hepatocytes. Cells were incubated anoxically at pH 6.2 for 4 h and re‐oxygenated at pH 7.4 to simulate IR. Chelatable iron, ROS, mitochondrial membrane potential and cell death were monitored by confocal imaging of calcein, chloromethyl dichlorofluorescein, tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester and propidium iodide, respectively. Ischemia caused progressive quenching of cytosolic calcein, indicating an increase of chelatable Fe2+, which was suppressed by desferal and starch‐desferal pretreatment. Quenching of calcein was also blocked by ebselen and ferristatin, inhibitors of lysosomal divalent metal transporter‐1. Ischemia induced quenching of calcein loaded into mitochondria, which was blocked by desferal, starch‐desferal and Ru360. These agents also decreased mitochondrial ROS formation, MPT onset and cell killing after reperfusion. In conclusion, lysosomal iron is mobilized into mitochondria during ischemia. Increased mitochondrial iron then predisposes cells for ROS‐mediated MPT opening and cell killing after reperfusion. (Supported by NIH grants DK073336 and DK37034)