Harnessed bees learn to associate an odorant with an electric shock so that afterward the odorant alone elicits the sting extension response (SER). We studied the dependency of retention on interstimulus interval (ISI), intertrial interval (ITI), and number of conditioning trials in the framework of olfactory SER conditioning. Forward ISIs (conditioned stimulus [CS] before unconditioned stimulus [US]) supported higher retention than a backward one (US before CS) with an optimum around 3 sec. Spaced trials (ITI 10 min) supported higher retention than massed trials (ITI 1 min) and led to the formation of a late long-term memory (l-LTM) that depended on protein synthesis. Our results reaffirm olfactory SER conditioning as a reliable tool for the study of learning and memory.The honeybee Apis mellifera is a main invertebrate model for the study of learning and memory as it allows combining controlled conditioning protocols with a simultaneous access to the nervous system in the laboratory (Menzel 1999;Giurfa 2007). The main protocol used to this end relies on the proboscis extension reflex (PER), the appetitive reflex exhibited by a harnessed honeybee to a sugar reward (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) delivered to its antennae and mouthparts. After appropriate pairing of an odorant (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) with sucrose presentations, the bee learns to associate odorant and sugar reward so that the odorant alone elicits PER (Takeda 1961;Bitterman et al. 1983). Despite the important progress made in understanding the behavioral, cellular, and molecular bases of this appetitive learning (Menzel 1999;Giurfa 2007), until recently it has been impossible to study aversive learning in bees in such a way that behavioral records would be accompanied by access to the nervous system. This gap has been filled by a novel conditioning protocol in which individually harnessed bees learn to associate an initially neutral odorant (CS) with a mild electric shock (US) (Vergoz et al. 2007). Bees fixed individually on a metallic holder (Fig. 1A) reflexively extend their sting (sting extension response, or SER) upon delivery of an electric shock to the thorax (Nú ñez et al. 1997;Balderrama et al. 2002), thus showing a typical defensive response to potentially noxious stimuli (Breed et al. 2004). After successful conditioning, the odorant elicits SER, a conditioned response that can be retrieved 1 h after conditioning (Vergoz et al. 2007). This form of conditioning is indeed aversive as shown by the fact that bees trained in this way and transferred to the operant context of a Y-maze, where they can freely walk and choose between the shock-associated odor and a non-shock-associated odor, explicitly avoid the punished odor and choose the non-shock-associated odor 1 h after conditioning ).Classical features of Pavlovian conditioning protocols such as the dependence of retrieval on the interstimulus interval (ISI; the interval between CS and US onset) and intertrial interval (ITI; the interval between consecutive trial onset) hav...
Fatty-acids (FAs) are required in the diet of many animals throughout their life. However, the mechanisms involved in the perception of and preferences for dietary saturated and unsaturated FAs (SFAs and UFAs, respectively) remain poorly explored, especially in insects. Using the model species Drosophila melanogaster, we measured the responses of wild-type larvae and adults to pure SFAs (14, 16, and 18 carbons) and UFAs (C18 with 1, 2, or 3 double-bonds). Individual and group behavioral tests revealed different preferences in larvae and adults. Larvae preferred UFAs whereas SFAs tended to induce both a strong aversion and a persistent aggregation behavior. Adults generally preferred SFAs, and laid more eggs and had a longer life span when ingesting these substances as compared to UFAs. Our data suggest that insects can discriminate long-chain dietary FAs. The developmental change in preference shown by this species might reflect functional variation in use of FAs or stage-specific nutritional requirements, and may be fundamental for insect use of these major dietary components.
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