The Muller F element (4.2 Mb, ~80 protein-coding genes) is an unusual autosome of Drosophila melanogaster; it is mostly heterochromatic with a low recombination rate. To investigate how these properties impact the evolution of repeats and genes, we manually improved the sequence and annotated the genes on the D. erecta, D. mojavensis, and D. grimshawi F elements and euchromatic domains from the Muller D element. We find that F elements have greater transposon density (25–50%) than euchromatic reference regions (3–11%). Among the F elements, D. grimshawi has the lowest transposon density (particularly DINE-1: 2% vs. 11–27%). F element genes have larger coding spans, more coding exons, larger introns, and lower codon bias. Comparison of the Effective Number of Codons with the Codon Adaptation Index shows that, in contrast to the other species, codon bias in D. grimshawi F element genes can be attributed primarily to selection instead of mutational biases, suggesting that density and types of transposons affect the degree of local heterochromatin formation. F element genes have lower estimated DNA melting temperatures than D element genes, potentially facilitating transcription through heterochromatin. Most F element genes (~90%) have remained on that element, but the F element has smaller syntenic blocks than genome averages (3.4–3.6 vs. 8.4–8.8 genes per block), indicating greater rates of inversion despite lower rates of recombination. Overall, the F element has maintained characteristics that are distinct from other autosomes in the Drosophila lineage, illuminating the constraints imposed by a heterochromatic milieu.

Hypertrophic scarring is characterized by the excessive development and persistence of myofibroblasts. These cells contract the surrounding extracellular matrix resulting in the increased tissue density characteristic of scar tissue. Periostin is a matricellular protein that is abnormally abundant in fibrotic dermis, however, its roles in hypertrophic scarring are largely unknown. In this report, we assessed the ability of matrix-associated periostin to promote the proliferation and myofibroblast differentiation of dermal fibroblasts isolated from the dermis of hypertrophic scars or healthy skin. Supplementation of a thin type-I collagen cell culture substrate with recombinant periostin induced a significant increase in the proliferation of hypertrophic scar fibroblasts but not normal dermal fibroblasts. Periostin induced significant increases in supermature focal adhesion formation, α smooth muscle actin levels and collagen contraction in fibroblasts cultured from hypertrophic scars under conditions of increased matrix tension in three-dimensional type-I collagen lattices. Inhibition of Rho-associated protein kinase activity significantly attenuated the effects of matrix-associated periostin on hypertrophic scar fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. Depletion of endogenous periostin expression in hypertrophic scar myofibroblasts resulted in a sustained decrease in α smooth muscle actin levels under conditions of reducing matrix tension, while matrix-associated periostin levels caused the cells to retain high levels of a smooth muscle actin under these conditions. These findings indicate that periostin promotes Rho-associated protein kinase-dependent proliferation and myofibroblast persistence of hypertrophic scar fibroblasts and implicate periostin as a potential therapeutic target to enhance the resolution of scars.

Dupuytren's disease (DD) is a common and heritable fibrosis of the palmar fascia that typically manifests as permanent finger contractures. The molecular interactions that induce the development of hyper-contractile fibroblasts, or myofibroblasts, in DD are poorly understood. We have identified IGF2 and IGFBP6, encoding insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-II and IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-6 respectively, as reciprocally dysregulated genes and proteins in primary cells derived from contracture tissues (DD cells). Recombinant IGFBP-6 inhibited the proliferation of DD cells, patient-matched control (PF) cells and normal palmar fascia (CT) cells. Co-treatments with IGF-II, a high affinity IGFBP-6 ligand, were unable to rescue these effects. A non-IGF-II binding analog of IGFBP-6 also inhibited cellular proliferation, implicating IGF-II-independent roles for IGFBP-6 in this process. IGF-II enhanced the proliferation of CT cells, but not DD or PF cells, and significantly enhanced DD and PF cell contractility in stressed collagen lattices. While IGFBP-6 treatment did not affect cellular contractility, it abrogated the IGF-II-induced contractility of DD and PF cells in stressed collagen lattices. IGF-II also significantly increased the contraction of DD cells in relaxed lattices, however this effect was not evident in relaxed collagen lattices containing PF cells. The disparate effects of IGF-II on DD and PF cells in relaxed and stressed contraction models suggest that IGF-II can enhance lattice contractility through more than one mechanism. This is the first report to implicate IGFBP-6 as a suppressor of cellular proliferation and IGF-II as an inducer of cellular contractility in this connective tissue disease.

IGF2 expression and β-catenin levels are increased in Frozen Shoulder Syndrome Abstract Purpose: Frozen Shoulder Syndrome is a brosis of the shoulder joint capsule that is clinically associated with Dupuytren's disease, a brosis of the palmar fascia. Little is known about any commonalities in the pathophysiology of these connective tissue broses. β-catenin, a protein that transactivates gene expression, and levels of IGF2 mRNA, encoding insulin-like growth factor-II, are elevated in Dupuytren's disease. e aim of this study was to determine if correlating changes in β-catenin levels and IGF2 expression are evident in Frozen Shoulder Syndrome.Methods: Tissue from patients with Frozen Shoulder Syndrome and rotator cu tear were obtained during shoulder arthroscopies. Total protein extracts were prepared from tissue aliquots and β-catenin immunoreactivity was assessed by Western immunoblotting. In parallel, primary broblasts were derived from these tissues and assessed for IGF2 expression by quantitative PCR.Results: β-catenin levels were signi cantly increased in Frozen Shoulder Syndrome relative to rotator cu tear when assessed by Western immunoblotting analyses. IGF2 mRNA levels were signi cantly increased in primary broblasts derived from frozen shoulder syndrome tissues relative to broblasts derived from rotator cu tissues. Conclusions:As in Dupuytren's disease, β-catenin levels and IGF2 expression are elevated in Frozen Shoulder Syndrome. ese ndings support the hypothesis that these connective tissue broses share a common pathophysiology. Materials and Methods Tissue collectionTissue sections were collected with approval of the Human Subjects Research Ethics Board (HSREB) at Western University from surgical specimens of patients undergoing shoulder arthroscopy for the treatment of either FSS or subacromial decompression for RCT. An arthroscopic punch was used to obtain tissue specimens from the rotator cu interval immediately adjacent to the antero-superior arthroscopic portal from patients with FSS and RCT. Representative samples of these tissues were removed at the time of surgery and immediately transported to the laboratory. e tissues were either snap frozen in liquid nitrogen for total protein extraction or processed for primary broblast derivation. Western immunoblottingTotal protein extracts were prepared from snap frozen tissue using modi ed RIPA bu er. Tissue lysate (25 μg) was subjected to Western blot analysis and β-catenin levels were assessed using an anti-β-catenin monoclonal antibody (clone 14, Transduction Laboratories, Lexington, KY). β-actin levels were assessed in parallel using an anti-β-actin antibody (Sigma, St Louis, MO) to normalize for variability in total protein loading. Antibody speci c bands were visualized using enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) and Kodak XLS lm. Densitometry analysis was carried out using Scion Image so ware (Scion Corporation, Beta 4.0.2, Frederick, MD). Normalized measurements of β-catenin were plotted as the sample mean (β-catenin /actin) ratio ± standard error...

In early systemic sclerosis (Scleroderma, SSc), the vasculature is impaired. Although the exact etiology of endothelial cell damage in SSc remains unclear, it is hypothesized that endothelial to mesenchymal transition (EndoMT) plays a key role. To perform physiologically relevant angiogenic studies, we set out to develop an angiogenesis-on-a-chip platform that is suitable for assessing disease parameters that are relevant to SSc and other vasculopathies. In the model, we substituted Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) with Human Serum without impairing the stability of the culture. We showed that 3D microvessels and angiogenic factor-induced sprouts exposed to key pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic cytokines (TNFα and TGFβ) undergo structural alterations consisting of destructive vasculopathy (loss of small vessels). We also showed that these detrimental effects can be prevented by compound-mediated inhibition of TGFβ-ALK5 signaling or addition of a TNFα neutralizing antibody to the 3D cultures. This demonstrates that our in vitro model is suitable for compound testing and identification of new drugs that can protect from microvascular destabilization or regression in disease-mimicking conditions. To support this, we demonstrated that sera obtained from SSc patients can exert an anti-angiogenic effect on the 3D vessel model, opening the doors to screening for potential SSc drugs, enabling direct patient translatability and personalization of drug treatment.

Dupuytren's disease (DD) is a fibroproliferative and contractile fibrosis of the palmar fascia that, like all other heritable fibroses, is currently incurable. While DD is invariably benign, it exhibits some molecular similarities to malignant tumours, including increased levels of ß-catenin, oncofetal fibronectin, periostin and insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-II. To gain additional insights into the pathogenesis of DD, we have assessed the expression of WT1, encoding Wilm's tumour 1, an established tumour biomarker that is syntenic with IGF2, the gene encoding IGF-II in humans. We found that WT1 expression is robustly and consistently up regulated in primary fibroblasts derived from the fibrotic palmar fascia of patients with DD (DD cells), whereas syngeneic fibroblasts derived from the macroscopically unaffected palmar fascia in these patients and allogeneic fibroblasts derived from normal palmar fascia exhibited very low or undetectable WT1 transcript levels. WT1 immunoreactivity was evident in a subset of cells in the fibrotic palmar fascia of patients with DD, but not in macroscopically unaffected palmar fascia. These findings identify WT1 expression as a novel biomarker of fibrotic palmar fascia and are consistent with the hypothesis that the pathogeneses of DD and malignant tumours have molecular similarities.

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