Many hepatic functions including lipid metabolism, drug metabolism, and inflammatory responses are regulated in a sex-specific manner due to distinct patterns of hepatic gene expression between males and females. Regulation for the majority of these genes is under control of Nuclear Receptors (NRs). Retinoid X Receptor alpha (RXRα) is an obligate partner for multiple NRs and considered a master regulator of hepatic gene expression, yet the full extent of RXRα chromatin binding in male and female livers is unclear. ChIP-Seq analysis of RXRα and RNA Polymerase2 (Pol2) binding was performed livers of both genders and combined with microarray analysis. Mice were gavage-fed with the RXR ligand LG268 for 5 days (30 mg/kg/day) and RXRα-binding and RNA levels were determined by ChIP-qPCR and qPCR, respectively. ChIP-Seq revealed 47,845 (male) and 46,877 (female) RXRα binding sites (BS), associated with ∼12,700 unique genes in livers of both genders, with 91% shared between sexes. RXRα-binding showed significant enrichment for 2227 and 1498 unique genes in male and female livers, respectively. Correlating RXRα binding strength with Pol2-binding revealed 44 genes being male-dominant and 43 female-dominant, many previously unknown to be sexually-dimorphic. Surprisingly, genes fundamental to lipid metabolism, including Scd1, Fasn, Elovl6, and Pnpla3-implicated in Fatty Liver Disease pathogenesis, were predominant in females. RXRα activation using LG268 confirmed RXRα-binding was 2–3 fold increased in female livers at multiple newly identified RXRα BS including for Pnpla3 and Elovl6, with corresponding ∼10-fold and ∼2-fold increases in Pnpla3 and Elovl6 RNA respectively in LG268-treated female livers, supporting a role for RXRα regulation of sexually-dimorphic responses for these genes. RXRα appears to be one of the most widely distributed transcriptional regulators in mouse liver and is engaged in determining sexually-dimorphic expression of key lipid-processing genes, suggesting novel gender- and gene-specific responses to NR-based treatments for lipid-related liver diseases.

Background/Aims Retinoid X Receptor α (RXRα) is the principal heterodimerization partner of class II Nuclear Receptors (NRs), and a major regulator of gene expression of numerous hepatic processes, including bile acid (BA) homeostasis through multiple partners. Specific contributions of hepatic RXRα domains in heterodimer function in response to either BA load or ductular cholestasis are not fully characterized. Methods Wild-type (WT) mice and mice expressing a hepatocyte-specific RXRα lacking the DNA-Binding-Domain (hs-RxrαΔex4-/-), which retains partial ability to heterodimerize with its partners, were fed a 1% Cholic acid (CA) diet for 5 days, a 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC) diet for 3 weeks, or control diet. Results Serum ALT (6.5-fold;p<0.05), AST (9.3-fold;p=0.06) and BA (2.8-fold;p<0.05) were increased in CA-fed hs-RxrαΔex4-/- mice compared to CA-fed WT mice, but were equally induced between genotypes by DDC-feeding. CA-feeding elevated total (4.4-fold;p=0.06) and unconjugated (2.2-fold;p<0.02) bilirubin levels in hs-RxrαΔex4-/- mice compared to WT mice, but not in DDC-fed hs-RxrαΔex4-/- mice. Increased necrosis and inflammation was observed in CA-fed, but not in DDC-fed hs-RxrαΔex4-/- mice. Apoptotic markers DR5, CK8, CK18 RNA were increased in CA- and DDC-fed hs-RxrαΔex4-/- mice. Cleaved Caspase3, CK18 and P-JNK protein were elevated in CA-fed but not in DDC-fed hs-RxrαΔex4-/- mice. Induction of Ostβand Cyp2b10 RNA was impaired in CA-fed and DDC-fed hs-RxrαΔex4-/- mice. Surprisingly, DDC-fed hs-RxrαΔex4-/- mice showed attenuated fibrosis compared to DDC-fed WT mice. Conclusions These two models of cholestasis identify common and injury-specific roles for RXRα heterodimers and the functional relevance of an intact RXRα-DBD in the hepatocytic adaptive cholestatic response.

Aim Slc10a6, an incompletely characterized member of the SLC10A bile acid transporter family, was one of the most highly-induced RNA transcripts identified in a screen for inflammation responsive genes in mouse liver. This study aimed to elucidate a role for Slc10a6 in hepatic inflammation. Methods Mice were treated with LPS (2mg/kg) or IL-1β (5mg/kg) for various time points. Cells were treated with LPS (1μg/ml) at various time points, with cell signaling inhibitors, nuclear receptor ligands and Slc10a6 substrates. All mRNA levels were determined by QPCR. Results Slc10a6 mRNA levels were upregulated in mouse liver at 2h (7-fold), 4h (100-fold), and 16h (50-fold) after LPS treatment, and 35-fold by the cytokine IL-1β (4h). Both absence of the nuclear receptor Fxr and pretreating mice with the synthetic RXRα ligand LG268 attenuated the LPS-upregulation of Slc10a6 mRNA by 60-75%. In vitro, Slc10a6 mRNA was induced 30-fold by LPS in mouse RAW264.7 macrophages in a time-dependent manner (maximum at 8h). The Slc10a6 substrate dehydroxyepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) enhanced LPS-induction of CCL5 mRNA, a pro-inflammatory chemokine, by 50% in RAW264.7 cells. This effect was abrogated in the presence of anti-inflammatory nuclear receptor ligands 9cisRA and Dexamethasone. Conclusions Dramatic upregulation of Slc10a6 mRNA by LPS combined with enhanced LPS-stimulation of CCL5 expression by the Slc10a6 substrate DHEAS in macrophages, suggests that Slc10a6 function contributes to the hepatic inflammatory response.