ObjectivesWe analysed data collected during programmatic screening activities conducted in 2017 to describe hepatitis C virus (HCV) seroprevalence in the general population and identify associated factors.DesignWe analysed data collected between June and September 2017. For both seroprevalence and viraemia, variations across demographic and geographic factors were assessed and multivariate regression models were fit to identify factors independently associated with each marker. Geospatial data were examined for visualisation.SettingHCV screening was organised within each of the 30 districts in Rwanda. One designated location in each district was selected as the screening site and screening took place for 1 week at each site.ParticipantsThis study included 124 223 male and female volunteers. Anti-HCV-positive individuals were followed up with HCV RNA viral load (VL) testing for infection confirmation.Main outcome measuresTwo markers were examined: the presence of HCV antibodies and HCV RNA VL.ResultsAmong 124 223 individuals screened, 11 003 (8.86%, 95% CIs: 8.70% to 9.02%) were positive for anti-HCV. Anti-HCV prevalence varied by age with the oldest age group (>55 year olds) having a prevalence of 16.46% (95% CIs: 16.14% to 16.80%) and the youngest age group (<25 year olds) having a prevalence of 2.20% (95% CIs: 1.93% to 2.50%) (crude OR=8.78). After adjustment for covariates, an association remained between anti-HCV prevalence and age (p<0.001), province (p<0.001) and socioeconomic status (p<0.001). Of the 3771 anti-HCV-positive individuals who had an available HCV RNA VL result, 2099 (55.66%, 95% CI: 54.06% to 57.25%) had a detectable HCV RNA VL. Age was also associated with HCV viraemia (p<0.001).ConclusionResults suggest that over 55% of individuals who screened positive for HCV-antibodies were chronically infected. Targeted screening for HCV among older individuals is recommended, given the association between age and infection. Further geographical hotspots of HCV infection can also inform targeted screening as Rwanda moves towards HCV elimination.

Background: Direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) are increasingly accessible to patients with hepatitis C (HCV) worldwide and are being introduced through national health systems in sub-Saharan Africa. DAAs are highly efficacious when tested in controlled trials, yet patients treated outside of study settings often encounter challenges in completing the full treatment and follow-up sequence. Little information is available on the influences of successful DAA implementation in sub-Saharan Africa. This qualitative study explored the individual-and system-level barriers and enablers of DAA treatment in Rwanda between March 2015 and November 2017. Methods: Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 39 patients who initiated care at one of four referral hospitals initially offering DAAs. Ten healthcare providers who managed HCV treatment participated in face-to-face interviews to examine system-level barriers and facilitators. Interview data were analyzed using a general inductive approach in alignment with the a priori objective of identifying barriers and facilitators of HCV care. Results: Barriers to successful treatment included patients' lack of knowledge surrounding HCV and its treatment; financial burdens associated with paying for medication, laboratory testing, and transportation; the cumbersome nature of the care pathway; the relative inaccessibility of diagnostics technology; and heavy workloads of healthcare providers accompanied by a need for additional HCV-specific training. Patients and healthcare providers were highly aligned on individual-and system-level barriers to care. The positive patient-provider relationship, strong support from community and family members, lack of stigma, and mild side effect profile of DAAs all positively influenced patients' engagement in treatment.

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This systematic review assesses participatory approaches to motivating positive change among health workers in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The mistreatment of clients at health centres has been extensively documented, causing stress among clients, health complications and even avoidance of health centres altogether. Health workers, too, face challenges, including medicine shortages, task shifting, inadequate training and a lack of managerial support. Solutions are urgently needed to realise global commitments to quality primary healthcare, country ownership and universal health coverage. This review searched 1243 titles and abstracts, of which 32 were extracted for full text review using a published critical assessment tool. Eight papers were retained for final review, all using a single methodology, ‘Health Workers for Change’ (HWFC). The intervention was adapted to diverse geographical and health settings. Nine indicators from the included studies were assessed, eliciting many common findings and documenting an overall positive impact of the HWFC approach. Health workers acknowledged their negative behaviour towards clients, often as a way of coping with their own unmet needs. In most settings they developed action plans to address these issues. Recommendations are made on mainstreaming HWFC into health systems in LMICs and its potential application to alleviating stress and burnout from COVID-19.

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