The human motor cortex is selectively vulnerable in a number of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review McColgan et al. integrate layer-specific physiology and pathobiology in the motor cortex thereby generating hypotheses that can be tested in humans using ultra-high resolution neuroimaging techniques. Glossary Anti-sense oligonucleotide therapies-These are single stranded DNA molecules, which bind to target pre-mRNA and recruit RNAse H causing degradation of the complex. This approach has already been applied to a number of neurodegenerative disease including Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Fusiform-This refers to a spindle shape, which is wide in the middle and tapers at both ends. Piriform-This refers to a pear shape, from the latin from pirum "pear" and forma "shape". 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-This is a compound which can cross the blood brain barrier were it is then converted into 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), a neurotoxin, which causes selective and permanent destruction of dopaminergic neurons in the substania nigra. Vibrotactile discrimination-This is an experimental design were stimuli of two different frequencies are applied to the hand and the participant is asked to discriminate between the low and high frequency stimuli. Infragranular layers-These are cortical layers 5 and 6, which are below the granular layer 4 in the neocortex. Supergranular layers-These are cortical layers 1 to 3, which are above the granular layer 4 in the neocortex. Hyperkinetic-This relates to increased or excessive movement, such as tremor in Parkinson's disease or chorea in Huntington's disease Hypokinetic-This relates to reduced or slowed movement, such as reduced fine finger movements and rigidity seen in Parkinson's disease. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy-This technique detects radiofrequency electromagnetic signals that are produced by the atomic nuclei within molecules. It can be used to obtain measures of chemicals in the brain, such as N-acetylasparate, creatine, glutamate and GABA.
Artificial weaning is a standard practice known to be one of the most stressful events in a domestic foal’s life. Research has mainly focused on ways to alleviate weaning stress. However, there is still a need for more detailed research on what should constitute best practices with respect to animal welfare. The aim of this review is to address this issue by examining the natural weaning process. We first provide an overview of the scientific literature on the natural temporal dynamics of the dam-offspring bond in horses: it is to be noted that the natural process of weaning is little documented, individual variations have been poorly investigated and immediate effects of weaning on the mare–foal relationship remain unexplored. To partly address these gaps, we performed a study around the weaning period on 16 mare–foal pairs kept with minimal human interference. Most foals were weaned spontaneously when 9-10 months old, with individual variations mainly due to the conception rate of mares. Natural weaning induced no stress response in either partner and was performed without clear signs of rejection by the dams either just before or after. We lastly open up the discussion on the need for rethinking weaning practices under domestic conditions.
The Global Parkinson's Genetics Program (GP2) will genotype over 150,000 participants from around the world, and integrate genetic and clinical data for use in large-scale analyses to dramatically expand our understanding of the genetic architecture of PD. This report details the workflow for cohort integration into the complex arm of GP2, and together with our outline of the monogenic hub in a companion paper, provides a generalizable blueprint for establishing large scale collaborative research consortia.
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