CpG sequences in self-DNA are an important potential trigger for autoantibody secretion in systemic lupus and other systemic autoimmune disorders. It is not known how this ubiquitous threat may be controlled by active mechanisms for maintaining self tolerance. Here we show that two distinct mechanisms oppose autoantibody secretion induced by CpG DNA in anergic B cells that are constantly binding self-antigen. Uncoupling of the antigen receptor (BCR) from a calcineurin-dependent pathway prevents signals that synergize with CpG DNA for proliferation. The BCR does not become desensitized by activating the extracellular response kinase (ERK) MAP kinase pathway, however, and continuous self-antigen signaling to ERK inhibits CpG DNA-induced plasma cell differentiation. These two mechanisms seem to act as a general control against autoantibody production elicited by Toll-like receptors, and their regulation of T cell-independent responses to Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is probably crucial for resistance to systemic autoimmunity.

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Differentiation of B cells into plasma cells represents a critical immunoregulatory checkpoint where neutralizing Abs against infectious agents must be selected whereas self-reactive Abs are suppressed. Bacterial LPS is a uniquely potent bacterial immunogen that can bypass self-tolerance within the T cell repertoire. We show here that during LPS-induced plasma cell differentiation, the ERK intracellular signaling pathway serves as a pivotal switch integrating opposing inputs from Ag via BCR and from the two best characterized B cell differentiation factors made by T cells, IL-2 and IL-5. Continuous Ag receptor signaling through the RAS/MEK/ERK pathway, as occurs in self-reactive B cells, inhibits LPS induction of Blimp-1 and the plasma cell differentiation program. Differentiation resumes after a transient pulse of Ag-ERK signaling, or upon inactivation of ERK by IL-2 and IL-5 through induction of dual-specificity phosphatase 5 (Dusp5). The architecture of this molecular switch provides a framework for understanding the specificity of antibacterial Ab responses and resistance to bacterially induced autoimmune diseases such as Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Background Signaling by IL-4 and IL-13 via the IL-4 receptor alpha chain (IL-4Rα) plays a critical role in the pathology of allergic diseases. The IL-4Rα is endowed with an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM), centered on tyrosine 709 (Y709) in the cytoplasmic domain, that binds a number of regulatory phosphatases. The function of the ITIM in the in vivo regulation of IL-4R signaling remains unknown. Objective To determine the in vivo function of the IL-4Rα ITIM using mice in which the ITIM was inactivated by mutagenesis of the tyrosine Y709 residue into phenylalanine (F709). Methods F709 ITIM mutant mice were derived by knockin mutagenesis. Activation of intracellular signaling cascades by IL-4 and IL-13 was assessed by intracellular staining of phosphorylated signaling intermediates and by gene expression analysis. In vivo responses to allergic sensitization were assessed using models of allergic airway inflammation. Results The F709 mutation increased STAT6 phosphorylation by IL-4 and, disproportionately, by IL-13. This was associated with exaggerated Th2 polarization, enhanced alternative macrophage activation by IL-13, augmented basal and antigen-induced IgE responses and intensified allergen-induced eosinophilic airway inflammation and hyperreactivity. Conclusions These results point to a physiologic negative regulatory role for the Y709 ITIM in signaling via IL-4Rα, especially by IL-13.

The number of circulating follicular B lymphocytes is normally kept within a precise range despite their dispersion through the body and daily overproduction of precursors in the bone marrow. By establishing a genome wide recessive mutation screen in C57BL/6 mice to identify critical components of immune system regulation, we identified a mutant strain with selective deficiency in recirculating B cells but not immature or peritoneal B1 cells. Analysis of mixed bone marrow chimeras established that the mutation affects a cell autonomous process within B cells that is required for their accumulation after emigrating to peripheral lymphoid organs. The defect is caused by a point mutation in the gene encoding transcription factor nuclear factor (NF)-κB2, terminating the encoded protein within the DNA-binding domain. These findings establish the feasibility of analyzing immune regulation by genome wide mutant screens and demonstrates an intrinsic requirement for NF-κB2 in regulating circulating follicular B cell numbers.

CD22 phosphorylation is an early event of B cell antigen receptor engagement and results in the recruitment of the negative regulatory tyrosine phosphatase, SHP-1. Peptides representing the potential phosphorylation sites within the cytoplasmic domain of CD22 have been used to stimulate SHP-1 catalytic activity and to inhibit the binding of SHP-1 to CD22 (Doody, G., Justement, L., Delibrias, C., Matthews, R., Lin, J., Thomas, M., and Fearon, D. (1995) Science 269, 242-244). However, the sites of phosphorylation within the cytoplasmic domain of CD22 and the importance of each for the recruitment and activation of SHP-1 remain unknown. Here we demonstrate that there are multiple sites within the cytoplasmic domain of CD22 that interact with the Src homology 2 domains of SHP-1. Nevertheless, a minimum of two tyrosines in CD22 is required for the association with SHP-1. Furthermore, both Src homology 2 domains of SHP-1 are necessary for efficient binding to CD22. Engagement of the B cell antigen receptor (BCR)1 results in an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation. CD22, a B cell-specific transmembrane lectin, is one of the initial substrates phosphorylated upon BCR engagement. The cytoplasmic domain of CD22 contains six tyrosines and has the potential of being a docking site for various Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing proteins. Indeed, it has been shown that CD22 binds to multiple enzymes including Syk, p53/56 lyn (Lyn), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, phospholipase C␥, and SHP-1 (1-4). However, neither the sequence nor the mechanism of these interactions has been delineated.The importance of CD22 in BCR signaling is demonstrated by the development of mice ablated in CD22 gene expression (5-8). These mice exhibit a spontaneous decrease in IgM expression and elevated calcium mobilization in response to BCR cross-linking. This suggests that CD22 is important in the negative regulation of BCR signaling. Interestingly, an elevated calcium response is also observed in mice deficient in either the Src family kinase, Lyn, or the tyrosine phosphatase, SHP-1 (9, 10), suggesting that these enzymes also contribute to the negative regulation of the BCR. Indeed, by examining mice that are heterozygous for a genetic defect for two or more of these genes, it has been demonstrated that CD22, Lyn, and SHP-1 interact to control BCR negative regulation (10). BCR activation results in Lyn phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic domain of CD22, thus allowing for the recruitment of SHP-1 (10). Various studies have shown that SHP-1 is essential for B cell development and BCR negative regulation (9 -13). Furthermore, SHP-1 functions to regulate Syk kinase activity.2 Therefore, the interaction of CD22 and SHP-1 is central to BCR regulation.SHP-1 is a cytosolic enzyme containing two SH2 domains at the amino terminus. In its native form, SHP-1 has low basal catalytic activity. However, truncation of the SH2 domains or binding to the SH2 domains substantially increases its catalytic activity, suggesting that the SH2 domains regulate the catalyt...

An equilibrium between positive and negative regulation of immunoreceptor signaling leads to the proper execution of lymphocyte activation. Tyrosine phosphorylation is the initial event in antigen receptor-induced lymphocyte activation. It is generally accepted that protein tyrosine kinases are involved in positive regulation, whereas protein tyrosine phosphatases are important for the negative regulation of tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent processes. However, the interaction between protein tyrosine kinases and protein tyrosine phosphatases is complex. This article discusses the role of two protein tyrosine phosphatases. CD45 and SHP-1, in the regulation of immunoreceptor signaling. SHP-1 acts as a negative regulator for several immunoreceptors, including those for T- and B-cell antigen receptors. The major role of CD45 is in the positive regulation of T- and B-cell antigen receptor signaling.

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