Conservation actions need to account for and be adapted to address changes that will occur under global climate change. The identification of stresses on biological diversity (as defined in the Convention on Biological Diversity) is key in the process of adaptive conservation management. We considered any impact of climate change on biological diversity a stress because such an effect represents a change (negative or positive) in key ecological attributes of an ecosystem or parts of it. We applied a systemic approach and a hierarchical framework in a comprehensive classification of stresses to biological diversity that are caused directly by global climate change. Through analyses of 20 conservation sites in 7 countries and a review of the literature, we identified climate-change-induced stresses. We grouped the identified stresses according to 3 levels of biological diversity: stresses that affect individuals and populations, stresses that affect biological communities, and stresses that affect ecosystem structure and function. For each stress category, we differentiated 3 hierarchical levels of stress: stress class (thematic grouping with the coarsest resolution, 8); general stresses (thematic groups of specific stresses, 21); and specific stresses (most detailed definition of stresses, 90). We also compiled an overview of effects of climate change on ecosystem services using the categories of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and 2 additional categories. Our classification may be used to identify key climate-change-related stresses to biological diversity and may assist in the development of appropriate conservation strategies. The classification is in list format, but it accounts for relations among climate-change-induced stresses.
Protected areas are arguably the most important instrument of biodiversity conservation. To keep them fit under climate change, their management needs to be adapted to address related direct and indirect changes. In our study we focus on the adaptation of conservation management planning, evaluating management plans of 60 protected areas throughout Germany with regard to their climate change-robustness. First, climate change-robust conservation management was defined using 11 principles and 44 criteria, which followed an approach similar to sustainability standards. We then evaluated the performance of individual management plans concerning the climate change-robustness framework. We found that climate change-robustness of protected areas hardly exceeded 50 percent of the potential performance, with most plans ranking in the lower quarter. Most Natura 2000 protected areas, established under conservation legislation of the European Union, belong to the sites with especially poor performance, with lower values in smaller areas. In general, the individual principles showed very different rates of accordance with our principles, but similarly low intensity. Principles with generally higher performance values included holistic knowledge management, public accountability and acceptance as well as systemic and strategic coherence. Deficiencies were connected to dealing with the future and uncertainty. Lastly, we recommended the presented principles and criteria as essential guideposts that can be used as a checklist for working towards more climate change-robust planning.
The Carpathian Biosphere Reserve (CBR) in Ukrainian Transcarpathia, formally recognized by UNESCO in 1992, is one of the most important protected areas in Europe. In 2007, the beech forests of Uholka were included into the UNESCO World Heritage Site Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians because of their uniqueness. In the course of the reserve's spatial development and the potential integration of populated areas, participatory management arises as a crucial challenge. A first study of local stakeholders (private and state forestry enterprises, local communities), their attitudes and potential conflicts as well as synergies was conducted in 2008. Local communities, especially authorities, generally have a fairly positive attitude towards sustainable development and cooperation. Conflicts exist mainly between the CBR and the forestry sector, which is presently least oriented towards sustainability and rather focussed on economic revenue. We identified a common, but not insurmountable, lack of communication and cooperation between stakeholders. Local acceptance of the CBR is growing. Therefore the CBR can take the lead in applying a more integrative and participatory conservation management approach. 5R e search eco.m o n t -Vo l u m e 1 , N u m b e r 2 , D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 9 ISSN 2073-106X print version ISSN 2 0 7 3 -1 5 5 8 o n l i n e v e r s i o n : h t t p : / / e p u b . o e a w. a c . a t / e c o . m o n t
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