Termites are social insects belonging to the order Isoptera and constitute one of the dominant groups of invertebrates in terrestrial environments of the tropical region. Currently, there are around 2,900 species described in seven families: Mastotermitidae, Kalotermitidae, Termopsidae, Hodotermitidae, Serritermitidae, Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae. The Neotropical region contains 537 species, and from these, approximately 300 occur in Brazil and belong to the families Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae, Serritermitidae and Termitidae. Although the Isoptera has been known by their potential as pest, the ecological role of the termites in the environment is primordial since they play a role as primary consumers and/or decomposers in natural ecosystems. These insects participate actively in the crushing, decomposition, humus production and mineralization of a variety of cellulose-based resources. A great diversity of organic material, in several stages of decomposition, may serve as food for termites, including wood (sound or decayed), grass, herbaceous plants, litter, fungi, nests built by other termite species, dung and carrion, lichen and even organic material present in the soil (humus). This vast range of food sources allowed the termites to occupy almost all the tropical and temperate regions of the Earth, occurring practically in all the terrestrial environments, natural or modified by the human species. Therefore, termites are found in the tropical and temperate forests, cerrados, savannas, caatingas, shallow places, mangrove regions, low vegetation stems, crops, pastures and urban environments.Keywords: feeding habits, nourishment, food behavior, types of food, feeding-preference. Os cupins são insetos sociais pertencentes à ordem Isoptera e constituem um dos grupos de invertebrados dominantes em ambientes terrestres tropicais. Atualmente, existem cerca de 2.900 espécies descritas, que estão distribuídas em sete famílias: Mastotermitidae, Kalotermitidae, Termopsidae, Hodotermitidae, Serritermitidae, Rhinotermitidae e Termitidae. A região neotropical engloba 537 espécies, e dessas, aproximadamente 300 ocorrem no Brasil e pertencem às famílias Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae, Serritermitidae e Termitidae. Apesar dos isópteros serem bastante conhecidos pelo seu potencial como praga, o papel ecológico dos térmitas no ambiente é primordial, visto que desempenham o papel de consumidores primários e/ou decompositores nos ecossistemas naturais. Esses insetos participam ativamente na trituração, decomposição, humificação e mineralização de uma variedade de recursos celulósicos. Uma grande diversidade de material orgânico, em vários estágios de decomposição, pode servir de alimento para os cupins, incluindo madeira (viva ou morta), gramíneas, plantas herbáceas, serapilheira, fungos, ninhos construídos por outras espécies de cupins, excrementos e carcaças de animais, liquens e até mesmo material orgânico presente no solo (húmus). Essa vasta gama de fontes alimentares permitiu aos cupins ocuparem quase todas as regiões...

Edited by José Maurício Simões Bento -ESALQ/USPNeotropical Entomology 38(1): 001-006 (2009) Comunicação Química em Isoptera RESUMO -Os semioquímicos dos cupins têm sido pouco estudados quando comparados aos de formigas e abelhas. Um dos fatores limitantes é o hábito críptico dos térmitas, aliado à difi culdade de manutenção de muitas espécies em laboratório. Entre os semioquímicos de Isoptera destacam-se os feromônios sexuais, de trilha, de alarme e uma mistura complexa de substâncias responsável pelo reconhecimento dos companheiros de ninho. Apesar de os semioquímicos dos cupins serem pouco conhecidos, os dados disponíveis indicam uma estratégia de parcimônia feromonal na comunicação química desses insetos, ou seja, algumas vezes o mesmo composto é secretado por diferentes glândulas, diferentes espécies e para diferentes funções. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Semioquímico, feromônio de trilha, feromônio de alarme, feromônio sexual, cupimABSTRACT -The semiochemicals produced by termites have been little studied compared to those of ants and bees. Among the limiting factors are the cryptic habits of termites, together with the diffi culty in maintaining many species in the laboratory. The semiochemicals of Isoptera include trail, sex and alarm pheromones and a complex mixture of substances responsible for the recognition of nestmates. Although little is known about the semiochemicals of termites, available data indicate a strategy of pheromonal parsimony in the chemistry communication of these insects, i.e., the same compound is sometimes secreted by different glands, different species and for different functions.

Potential of direct seeding in forest restoration of an abandoned pasture in the municipal area of Piracaia, São Paulo State, Brazil). The successful establishment of tree species in pastures may be related to the species used, germination conditions, and seed size. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments: pre-hydration and different kinds of seed coverage in eight native species with different seed sizes and verify if these species would be able to produce 1,666 individual ha -1 after one year. Five of the eight species tested had potential for large-scale use with the higher germination rate for the small seeds. The pre-hydration of the seeds was not efficient in increasing the germination and in the establishment of species, but coverage with straw and soil showed important results. The best result was obtained with the treatment of seed coverage with soil without hydration, with the establishment of 3,817 seedlings ha -1 after one year.RESUMO -(Potencial da semeadura direta na restauração florestal de pastagem abandonada no município de Piracaia, SP, Brasil). O sucesso do estabelecimento de espécies arbóreas em pastagens pode estar relacionado a espécie utilizada, condições de germinação e tamanho das sementes. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência dos tratamentos: pré-hidratação e diferentes coberturas em oito espécies nativas com diferentes tamanhos de sementes e verificar se estas seriam capazes de produzir após um ano 1.666 indivíduos ha -1 . Cinco espécies testadas apresentaram potencial para uso em grande escala, sendo que as sementes pequenas obtiveram a maior taxa de germinação. A pré-hidratação das sementes não se mostrou eficiente no aumento da germinação e estabelecimento das espécies, mas a cobertura por palha ou terra foi de grande importância. O melhor resultado obtido foi com o tratamento das sementes cobertas com terra e sem hidratação, com estabelecimento de 3.817 mudas ha -1 após um ano. Palavras-chave: pré-hidratação de sementes, recobrimento de sementes, tamanho de sementes

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Coptotermes gestroi and Heterotermes tenuis have been described as important urban pests in Brazil. The establishment of control technologies using baits that consider the social behavior of termites requires a better knowledge of their foraging behavior. Thus, this study analyzed the feeding behavior of these species with three different forms of food placement: food on the surface of a substrate and food either partially or completely buried in the substrate. Experimental arenas were composed of a central chamber connected to three food chambers. Each central chamber contained 550 foragers of C. gestroi or 517 foragers of H. tenuis. Blocks of Pinus elliottii were placed in the different food chambers. After 28 days, the consumption of each wood block and the percentage of foraging individuals recruited for food chambers were verified in relation to the total survival rate obtained for each one of the 20 replicates. Results showed that completely buried food was most consumed for H. tenuis and presented a higher recruitment rate of workers and soldiers for both species. Although the consumption had non‐significant differences for C. gestroi, these termites exhibited a tendency to prefer completely buried food. In these conditions, it can be concluded that the forms of food placement used in the present research influenced the recruitment of individuals for both species. Data also suggests that when the foraging subterranean termites find food resources in the tunneling substrate, they tend to concentrate their efforts on it, a behavior regime that reduces exposure to external environment.

A previous research suggests that when subterranean termites locate equivalent food they consume the initial food resource. However, little is known about the movement of foragers among these food sources. For this reason, this study analyzed the feeding behavior of Heterotermes tenuis and Coptotermes gestroi in the presence of equivalent foods. The experimental arenas were composed of a release chamber connected to food chambers. The consumption of each wood block and percentage of the foraging individuals recruited for the food chambers were observed in relation to the total survival rate. The results showed that in the multiple-choice tests, wood block consumptions and the recruitment of individuals did not differ between replicates of each termite species. However, in different tests of tenacity, the chambers with the first food presented higher feeding rates by both H. tenuis and C. gestroi and resulted in a higher recruitment of workers and soldiers. In these conditions, it may be concluded that foragers of either species do not concentrate their efforts on the consumption of only one food resource when they are able to reach multiple cellulosic sources simultaneously. Additionally, the data concerning tenacity tests suggest that there is a chronologic priority of consumption in relation to the discovery of available food sources. Knowledge about the foraging biology of subterranean termites is important for future studies of their feeding behavior, and it is indispensable for improving control strategies.

Termite colonies are usually headed by primary reproductives, which establish nests during the swarming season. However, secondary reproductives may develop in some species and become supplementary or replacement breeders, extending colony lifespan. Here we investigate the developmental origin, fecundity and genetic characterization of ergatoid reproductives in the Neotropical termite Nasutitermes aquilinus (Holmgren), using morphometrical and histological techniques, five microsatellite loci and the COI mitochondrial DNA. Twelve measurements performed on 208 apterous individuals of N. aquilinus revealed 10 groups, including ergatoid females, which developed from major workers through two successive molts, and were characterized by the presence of imaginal features such as eyes and wing buds. The differentiation of these features was correlated to physogastric development in these ergatoids. Histology revealed oocytes in all maturation stages in worker-derived reproductives of N. aquilinus, presence of nonflagellate spermatozoa inside the spermatheca, and royal fat body. Thus, ergatoid reproductives were reproductively functional. According to the genotypes of 221 individuals from 11 nests, and mitochondrial haplotypes of 43 ergatoids, 73% of the colonies were simple families, whereas 27% were extended families. Despite the occurrence of related reproductives, low inbreeding rates were detected within and among colonies. Such values could be explained given that sib mating itself cannot result in a higher inbreeding rate but depend on several factors discussed in detail. This is the first study to investigate the genetic structure of termite colonies influenced by the development of ergatoids, and further investigations are encouraged to understand the influence of these reproductives on colony lifespan.

Coptotermes gestroi forages on wooden structures and causes substantial damage in urban areas of Brazil. The survival of foragers may be influenced by either group size or caste composition. It was hypothesised that workers survive at higher rates in larger groups and consequently exhibit higher rates of food consumption and that soldiers represent a nutritional resource for foragers during starvation periods. To test the first hypothesis, groups of 100, 200 and 400 workers were placed in experimental arenas containing wood as food. After 28 days, the units were evaluated and the number of living termites and wood consumption were estimated and compared. An analysis of the data found that there were no significant differences within the group sizes on termite survival but that relative wood consumption was significantly higher in the smaller groups. To test the second hypothesis, groups containing workers and soldiers (9:1 ratio) or only workers were placed in experimental arenas with food present or absent. Survival for each caste was monitored at 3 day intervals over 9 days to estimate the cannibalism rate. Cannibalism was significantly higher in the starved groups, but the presence of soldiers did not influence the rate of cannibalism. Colony fragmentation and starvation are stressful conditions that lead foragers of C. gestroi to adaptive behaviours in order to enhance their survival.