First, based on self-categorization theory, we conceptualize multilevel forms of collective identity, namely embedded and dis-embedded identity. These describe different forms of the identification with one’s religious community and one’s society as well as the perception of the (dis-)embeddedness of one’s community within or from one’s society. For the purpose of validation, we analyze data from five cross-sectional samples of religious communities within different societies. The data provide support for our conceptualizations. Second, we examine the predictive value of embedded and dis-embedded identity for (in)tolerance of religious groups toward disapproved outgroups such as atheists, feminists, homosexuals, or Muslims. Based on self-categorization theory and the disapproval–respect model of tolerance, we deduce the conceptual match between (dis-)embedded identity and (in)tolerance. Also, tolerance is proposed as the reasonable response to intergroup conflicts. We hypothesize embedded identity to positively predict but dis-embedded identity to negatively predict tolerance. Data from three longitudinal samples of religious communities within different societies are analyzed. The results provide partial support for the positive relation between embedded identity and tolerance but consistent support for the negative relation between dis-embedded identity and tolerance. The implications for tolerance of and for religious communities in modern societies are discussed.

In this article, we focus on the process of dis-embedded identification (the accentuation and prioritization of the identification with a particular subordinate ingroup relative to the identification with the relevant superordinate ingroup) among majority members and examine possible antecedents and consequences. To this end, we conducted research with Catholics in Poland. We hypothesized societal respect for Catholics would negatively predict dis-embedded identification, whereas intragroup respect would positively predict dis-embedded identification—especially under the condition of lacking societal respect. We further hypothesized dis-embedded identification to positively predict the pursuit of hegemony. These hypotheses are mainly based on Honneth’s theory of recognition and Turner’s self-categorization theory. Employing a longitudinal research design and latent variable modeling, we obtained supporting evidence for our hypotheses. The implications for further research, especially on intergroup relations and politics in pluralizing societies, are discussed.

The concept of respect figures prominently in several theories on intergroup relations. Previous studies suggested that the experience of being respected is primarily related to the feeling of being recognized as an equal, as opposed to social recognition of needs or achievements. Those studies focused, however, on either minority groups or ad hoc groups, thereby possibly giving equality recognition an advantage. This article extends previous findings by comparing societal groups situated in various contexts. We examined eight groups from four countries. We anticipated and found that the link between respect and equality recognition was stronger for groups that are in the position of minorities compared to groups associated with majorities. Owing to the moral and legal force of the norm of equality, disadvantaged minorities in particular might be able to improve their societal position by founding their claims on the equality principle. Need recognition, in contrast, was less influential for minority groups than for majority groups. While we observed these context-dependent variations, an internal meta-analysis showed that feeling recognized as an equal was, overall, the strongest indicator for feeling respected. This suggests that demands for respect could often be addressed by establishing relationships in society that are based on mutual recognition as equals, while the implications of achievement and need recognition should additionally be considered in specific contexts.

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