The contribution of oxidative stress to ischemic brain damage is well established. Nevertheless, for unknown reasons, several clinically tested antioxidant therapies failed to show benefits in human stroke. Based on our previous in vitro work, we hypothesized that the neuroprotective potency of antioxidants is related to their ability to limit release of the excitotoxic amino acids, glutamate and aspartate. We explored the effects of two antioxidants, tempol and edaravone, on amino acid release in the brain cortex, in a rat model of transient occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (MCAo). Amino acid levels were quantified using a microdialysis approach, with the probe positioned in the ischemic penumbra as verified by a laser Doppler technique. Two-hour MCAo triggered a dramatic increase in the levels of glutamate, aspartate, taurine and alanine. Microdialysate delivery of 10 mM tempol reduced the amino acid release by 60–80%, while matching levels of edaravone had no effect. In line with these latter data, an intracerebroventri-cular injection of tempol but not edaravone (500 nmols each, 15 minutes prior to MCAo) reduced infarction volumes by ~50% and improved neurobehavioral outcomes. In vitro assays showed that tempol was superior in removing superoxide anion, whereas edaravone was more potent in scavenging hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical, and peroxynitrite. Overall, our data suggests that the neuroprotective properties of tempol are likely related to its ability to reduce tissue levels of the superoxide anion and pathological glutamate release, and, in such a way, limit progression of brain infarction within ischemic penumbra. These new findings may be instrumental in developing new antioxidant therapies for treatment of stroke.
The occurrence of recurrent, unprovoked seizures is the hallmark of human epilepsy. Currently, only two-thirds of this patient population has adequate seizure control. New epilepsy models provide the potential for not only understanding the development of spontaneous seizures, but also for testing new strategies to treat this disorder. Here, we characterize a primary generalized seizure model of epilepsy following repeated exposure to the GABA A receptor antagonist, flurothyl, in which mice develop spontaneous seizures that remit within 1 month. In this model, we expose C57BL/6J mice to flurothyl until they experience a generalized seizure. Each of these generalized seizures typically lasts Ͻ30 s. We induce one seizure per day
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