12The perceptual use of multisensory information apparently changes with age. Yet it remains unclear 13 whether previously reported age-effects arise from changes in the sensory computations by which 14 information is combined, from a reduced sensory precision with age, or changes in the belief that 15 different sensory-motor cues are causally linked. To address this question we analysed how healthy 16 young and older adults integrate audio-visual information within (ventriloquist-effect) and between trials 17 (ventriloquist after-effect) using models of Bayesian causal inference. Despite a reduced precision of 18 sensory representations in the elderly, both groups exhibited comparable ventriloquist biases that were 19 reproduced by largely the same sensory computations. While the after-effect bias was also comparable 20 between groups, modelling showed that this was driven by previous sensory information in younger but 21 by the previous response in older participants. This suggests a transition from a sensory-to a behavior-22 driven influence of past experience on subsequent choices with age, possibly related to the reduced 23 sensory precision or memory capacity with age. 24 25 26

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Summary This systematic review and meta‐analysis aimed to quantify the effects of laboratory‐based interventions targeting specific mechanisms of food craving, to identify moderators of effects, and to qualitatively summarize findings. The study was conducted and reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Sixty‐nine studies were included in the quantitative synthesis, and separate meta‐analyses were conducted for the outcomes self‐reported craving and objective food intake. Results show small to medium positive effects across specific craving interventions on both outcomes. Effect sizes were partly moderated by intervention type. The most effective intervention regarding food intake was in sensu cue exposure. For subjective craving, the most robust evidence was found for beneficial effects of cognitive regulation strategies (ie, reappraisal, suppression, and distraction). Results further indicate that training inhibitory control through behavioral inhibition might be more effective than approach‐avoidance training when considering its effect on subjective craving and food intake. People with external eating habits, overeating, or loss‐of‐control eating might benefit from these types of specific craving interventions. Future research should focus on long‐term effects, transferability, and effectiveness in clinical samples.

Zusammenfassung. Food Craving ist ein Kernmerkmal verschiedener Essstörungen und hängt mit Übergewicht, Adipositas und patho­logischem Essverhalten zusammen. Ziel dieses Überblicksartikels ist es daher, den aktuellen Forschungsstand zu empirisch überprüften ­Interventionen zur Reduktion von Food Craving bei gesunden Personen sowie bei Personen mit klinischer oder subklinischer Essstörung dar­zustellen. Dabei wurden kognitive Regulationsstrategien, Trainings zur Modifikation von exekutiven Funktionen, expositionsorientierte ­Interventionen, Imagina­tionsverfahren, Bio- und Neurofeedback sowie Achtsamkeitstrainings berücksichtigt. Es zeigten sich unterschiedliche Effekte bezüglich der Wirksamkeit dieser Interventionen zur Reduktion des Cravings. Die Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass einige der Interventionen Ansatzpunkte zur ­Behandlung von Personen mit Essstörungen bieten, allerdings sollten die Limitationen der jeweiligen Studien sowie die ­Vorläufigkeit der Ergebnisse berücksichtigt werden.

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