Past research has assessed gender differences in delinquency due to differential social controls, yet important questions remain regarding gender and social bonding. As much of this work was premised on Hirschi's measurement of the social bond, we examine whether gender moderates two parts of the social bond: the measurement of the social bond and structural differences between the social bond and delinquency. Using multiple-group structural equation modeling, we find that neither the measures of the social bond nor their relationships with property crime are gender-specific. The structural relationship between the elements of the social bond and violent delinquency differs slightly for boys and girls. We discuss implications of this research for social control theory, measuring the social bond and for gender-specific theories of social bonding and control.
Golf does not inherently privilege men or women physically, yet men are much more likely to participate in golf. The authors explore the institutional (e.g., societal level) and interactional barriers to women's golf participation and uncover strategies women use to negotiate playing and persisting in golf. Guided by research on tokenism in occupations, statistical discrimination, and feminist research in the sociology of sport, the authors use 10 interviews with recreational women golfers to explore these issues. Similar to women in predominantly male occupations, the women in this study report heightened visibility and experiences with typecasting on the golf course. In addition, social closure operates in the form of unwelcoming courses; women reported feeling ignored, overlooked, or unimportant on the course. The authors discuss several strategies the women in the sample use to overcome sexism and persist in golf.S ince the implementation of Title IX, more American women are playing sports and exceeding previous expectations of women's athletic possibilities (Messner, 2002). Such advances raise our expectations of the possibility of gender-integrated sports. Why then has golf, ostensibly a sport that accommodates a wide range of abilities, remained a "man's game" (Maas & Hasbrook, 2001), despite the notable efforts made by women professional golfers? We sought to answer this question by interviewing recreational women golfers who have persisted in the sport. We learned about the barriers and constraints that they overcame to persist and the strategies they employed.The physical barriers to women's integration into traditionally male sports are disappearing; however, profound social and psychological barriers and constraints remain. Inspired by the interviews, and insights from the extensive research tradition on women and the labor market, we suggest that similar to many occupations, people often frame golf as masculine. This framing marks women golfers as different or unexpected (Snyder, 1977). For most people, the term golfer immediately brings to mind a man, requiring
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