The effects of 2 factors, previewing and inclusion of a problem-resolution structure, on children's ability to construct stories from picture sequences of familiar events were examined. Preschoolers only produced coherent and cohesive stories when provided with pictures that corresponded to a well-formed story structure. Children provided causally sequenced plots, referred to characters' internal responses, and used a thematic subject pronoun strategy when constructing stories with pictures containing embedded problem sequences. In contrast, children focused on actions, used simple connectives, and a less sophisticated pronoun strategy in stories when pictures portrayed typical but uneventful sequences of the same events. Thus, children were constrained by the stimulus materials provided and could only produce narratives that were representative of good stories when the information contained in picture sequences was explicit. The finding that first graders produced structurally more complex stories containing goals and plots and used more complex language, past tense, and temporal connectives than preschoolers suggests that they may have a more elaborate story concept. Previewing event-based pictures encouraged children to make narratives more storylike. This study indicates that providing episodic support reduces task demands in children's storytelling.Children must contend with two main tasks, coherence and cohesion, in constructing stories. Coherence and cohesion, although related, can be theoretically distinguished (Karmiloff-Smith, 1985). In establishing coherence, children must draw on culturally shared knowledge to temporally and causally organize a narrative into a sequence that is meaningful to themselves and their listeners. That is, all the parts of the story must be structured so that the entire sequence of events is interrelated in a meaningful way. This may be accomplished by accessing schematic information that defines a set of rules governing the organization of categories and content of a story as denned by
This article reviews recent research on how children organize general script knowledge and memories of specific episodes in memory. First, we discuss developmental issues concerning how children represent single episodes during the initial stages of script acquisition. Research indicates that even very young children quickly grasp the role of variation and invariance in recurring experiences. After only a few varying experiences, children come to expect more variation, but if the initial experiences are invariant they expect that all future occurrences will be the same. However, there are developmental differences in children's ability to 'sort out' a standard script from its variations if a single experience is different from all others during the initial four or five exposures with an event. In the second section we focus on how typical and atypical episodes are remembered after a script is established. Here, there are few developmental differences. Very young children up to adults are better able to recall deviation episodes than episodes that closely follow a script. However, cueing plays an important role in remembering both routine and deviation episodes. In the last section we discuss explanations for developmental differences in children's memory for specific episodes during the initial phases of script acquisition and suggest areas for future research.One of the pervasive questions in psychology is how we come to understand and represent our world. Over the past 20 years, research has amply demonstrated that knowledge of real-world events is schematically organized (Bartlett, 1932;Bobrow and Norman, 1975;Mandler, 1983). Event schemas, or scripts, are defined as spatially-temporally organized sequences that specify the actions, actors, and props most likely and least likely to occur during any given instantiation of an event (Nelson and Gruendel, 1981;Schank and Abelson, 1977). The classic example is the restaurant script; virtually all individuals in our culture know the sequence of activities involved in going to a restaurant: being seated, getting a menu, ordering food, eating, and paying. Moreover, scripts are organized wholes: the instantiation of any one variable constrains the possible instantiations of all other variables. For example, in the restaurant script, if told that food is ordered at a counter, one infers that you order and pay before you sit down, you seat yourself, and most likely clean up the table when you are through. It is in this sense that scripts are dynamic and flexible; they allow us to anticipate and predict events in our world.Yet scripts are also assumed to aid in recall of past experiences. Research on
Recent technological advances in 3D printing have resulted in increased use of this technology in human medicine, and decreasing cost is making it more affordable for veterinary use. Rapid prototyping is at its early stage in veterinary medicine but clinical, educational, and experimental possibilities exist. Techniques and applications, both current and future, are explored and illustrated in this article.
This research was part of a dissertation submitted to the faculty of the City University of New York in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD degree. It was supported by Grant BNS 79 14006 from the National Science Foundation to Katherine Nelson. I thank Katherine Nelson for her guidance through all phases of the project, and Betsy Slackman for her assistance in data collection. I also thank Margaret Wagner for leading the workshops, and the children, teachers, and directors of the Brownstone Learning and Development Center,
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