In the present article, I consider the behavior of nonstigmatized versus stigmatized perceivers toward stigmatized target persons in personal relationships. First, I argue that nonstigmatized persons generally are less likely to enter into personal relationships with or to give affection and respect as socioemotional support to stigmatized persons than are other stigmatized persons. Second, I present a variety of facilitators and barriers to stigmatized persons' supportive function as well as factors that might make nonstigmatized persons more likely than stigmatized persons as sources of socioemotional support for stigmatized partners. Directions for future research are discussed.According to Goffman (1963), individuals with discredited identities are stigmatized by virtue of belonging to socially devalued groups whose distinguishing characteristics are readily visible (e.g., persons of color, heterosexual women) and face the constant task of managing tension when in public, whereas individuals with discreditable identities are stigmatized by virtue of belonging to socially devalued groups whose distinguishing characteristics are not readily visible (e.g., Jewish persons, gay men) and face the constant task of managing information when in public. Some individuals possess discredited as well as discreditable identities (e.g., White lesbians, Muslim men of color) and arguably enact the most complex and difficult roles of all stigmatized persons. The chronic stress and anxiety

The following hypotheses regarding interpersonal resource exchange among (a) dating couples ( n = 206 couples) and (b) engaged/married couples ( n = 103 couples) were tested: (1) levels of affectionate behavior are reciprocated (i.e. paths are bidirectional) among couples; (2) levels of respectful behavior are reciprocated among couples; (3) individuals' reported affectionate and respectful behaviors are correlated positively; (4) individuals' affection-giving traits are better as positive predictors of individuals' affectionate behavior among engaged/married couples than among dating couples; (5) individuals' respect-giving traits are better as positive predictors of individuals' respectful behavior among engaged/married couples than among dating couples; (6) individuals' gender-role compliance is better as a negative predictor of individuals' affectionate behavior among dating couples than among engaged/married couples; and (7) individuals' gender-role compliance is better as a negative predictor of individuals' respectful behavior among dating couples than among engaged/married couples. Individuals' interpersonal traits and gender-role compliance were self-reported, whereas individuals' interpersonal behaviors were reported by their partners. Results supported Hypotheses 1-3 (derived from resource exchange theory proposed by Foa & Foa, 1974) but not Hypotheses 4-7 (derived from the model of levels of relational involvement proposed by Levinger & Snoek, 1972). Unexpectedly, affection-giving traits generally were positive predictors of affectionate and respectful behavior, whereas respect-giving traits generally did not predict affectionate or respectful behavior. Implications for the study of interpersonal traits, gender roles and behavioral reciprocity in heterosexual relationships are discussed.

The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that between-gender friendships are characterized primarily by behavioral exchanges involving respect but not affection (i.e. correlations between men's and women's behaviors would reach significance only for respect-related behavior). A total of 62 pairs of male-female pairs completed a 12-item version of the Role Behavior Test (Foa & Foa, 1974), designed to measure partners' frequency of affection-giving, affection-denying, respect-giving and respect-denying behaviors; individuals reported the extent to which partners enacted each of the behaviors during the two weeks prior to participation in the study. Canonical correlation analyses of the behavioral data revealed that, as expected, no consistent pattern emerged regarding reciprocity of affection-giving or affection-denying behavior (i.e. males' and females' affection-related behaviors were not correlated significantly). In contrast, as expected, a clear pattern of reciprocity of respect-related exchange did emerge (i.e. males' and females' respect-related behaviors were correlated significantly). However, behavioral exchanges relevant to respect appeared to be limited to respect-denying (and not respect-giving) actions. Comparisons with male-male ( n = 62 pairs) and female-female (n = 65 pairs) friendships indicated that only among the male-female pairs did any consistent pattern of resource exchange occur. Implications for the study of male-female friendships are discussed.

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