To compare reproductive parameters of a managed population of free-ranging provisioned ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) to wild L. catta populations, we analyzed birth and mortality records collected over the 17-year history of the St. Catherines Island ring-tailed lemur colony. The majority of births in this colony (approximately 80%) occurred in March, which indicates that most females at this site conceived during the first estrus cycle of the breeding season, as do wild ring-tailed lemur females (Sauther [1991] Am J Phys Anthropol 84:463-77). Females in this provisioned colony reach the age at first parturition (primiparous age) earlier (at 2 years) than do wild ring-tailed lemurs, which typically begin to reproduce at 3 years of age (Sussman [1991] Female fecundity is lowest at 2 years of age (34%), but increases to 67-100% for females age 3 and older. Survival analyses showed that infant survivorship for very young (2-3 years) and very old females (410 years) are similar, and are lower than that for reproductively prime-aged females

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Though females are generally more selective in mate choice, males may also derive reproductive benefits from exercising mate selectivity if one or more factors limit male reproductive success and females differ in reproductive potential. I used male mating effort as a proxy for male mate choice in ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta). I calculated mating effort as the rate of malemale agonism during each female's estrous period 30 min before and 30 min after the first and last mountings with intromission. I collected data on 1 free-ranging Lemur catta troop during 2 consecutive breeding seasons on St. Catherines Island, USA. In both yrs, male mating effort differed significantly among troop females once I adjusted male-male agonistic rates to reflect agonistic intensity, and I corrected for the number of observed mates per female (2000: χ 2 = 27.43, df = 3, p < 0.0001; 2001: χ 2 = 21.10, df = 3, p < 0.001). Results strongly suggest male mate choice. Contrary to expectation, males did not expend the greatest mating effort for females with the highest dominance status nor the highest reproductive success. Males preferred females that either: (1) belonged to the age class in which fecundity and infant survival is the highest at this site (4-9 yrs), or 2) were older females (≥10 yrs) with high reproductive success. Female reproductive potential appears to be an important variable determining male mating effort in Lemur catta.

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Cathemerality, an activity pattern comprised of distinct periods of diurnal and nocturnal activity, is a trait found among several of the Malagasy strepsirhines and one species of Aotus. Because occasional anecdotal reports suggest that some diurnal primates can be active at night, I investigated the possibility of nocturnal ranging behavior in the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) by using global positioning system (GPS) collars programmed to collect data across a 24-h period. Five individuals in a provisioned, free-ranging L. catta colony on St. Catherines Island, Georgia, USA, wore GPS collars across 1 week of the mating season. Results revealed that night ranging behavior occurred between the h of 1900 and 0530. An evaluation of the effect of moonlight on nocturnal activity showed that a greater rate of travel occurred during moonlit periods as opposed to periods when the moon had not yet risen. Distance travelled at night decreased across the deployment period, likely because of a decrease in available moonlight over time, as the lemurs were collared during a waning moon. Fewer mating opportunities over time may have also been responsible for the decrease in night ranging, because the number of females in estrus declined across the deployment period. Future research is needed to separate the effects of moonlight and mating activity on night ranging in this species, as well as to evaluate whether L. catta in Madagascar show night ranging similar to L. catta on SCI. These data raise the possibility that L. catta may be cathemeral, with an activity pattern fluctuating between diurnality and cathemerality in accordance with shifts in environmental conditions.

There are now over 200 red ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata rubra) housed in captivity in North America. However, housing space is limited thus reproduction of this species has been curtailed. Ruffed lemurs are usually housed in pairs or pairs with their immature offspring. In the wild, large groups of ruffed lemurs have been reported suggesting that there is potential to maintain larger groups in captivity. Quantitative data on the behavior of large groups of ruffed lemurs in captivity is lacking. This study was conducted on an established group of lemurs at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo to document social interactions over an extended period of time. A total of 420 hours of behavioral data were collected on five males and three females over four years. Animals engaged in affiliative behavior nearly six times as frequently as agonistic or reproductive behaviors. MANOVA revealed that females engaged in significantly more social interactions than did males. Over time, aggressive interactions decreased and reproductive behaviors increased, indicating group stability and cohesiveness. The success of this group suggests that larger groups of red ruffed lemurs can be compatible and could be an effective means of increasing captive holding space for this species. Maternal competence is particularly variable among primiparous nonhuman primates, and sufficient quantitative information is lacking on the specific behavioral patterns related to the successful rearing of offspring by primiparous chimpanzees. This study was conducted at multiple institutions to quantify maternal behavior of 24 chimpanzees after the birth of their first infants. Observations were conducted as soon as possible postpar-tum and continued for several weeks. Data were one-zero samples of maternal behavior, infant behavior, their interactions and proximity. The chimpanzees successfully reared 16 of their 24 infants (67%). During the 303 hours of data collected, all mothers in the study contacted their infants during 98% of the intervals, carried them during 96% of the intervals , and nursed them during 12% of the intervals. The infants vocalized during 7% of the intervals and exhibited a strong grip during 72% of the intervals. A MANOVA on 42 hours of data collected on the day of birth revealed that successful mothers showed significantly higher levels of carrying their infants ventrally and responding to their infants than did mothers who were ultimately unsuccessful. Successful mothers showed less inappropriate contact (e.g., dangling infants). There were no differences in the number of intervals in which mothers nursed or were aggressive to their infants. These findings can aid in evaluating the competence of primiparous chimpanzees and in making ethologically based management decisions. Four chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and two rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) selected either five Arabic numerals, five colored squares, or five lexigrams on a computer monitor in a specific, learned sequence. On probe trials in one condition, the locations of the sec...

In light of historical and recent anthropogenic influences on Malagasy primate populations, in this study ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) samples from two sites in southwestern Madagascar, Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR) and Tsimanampetsotsa National Park (TNP), were evaluated for the genetic signature of a population bottleneck. A total of 45 individuals (20 from BMSR and 25 from TNP) were genotyped at seven microsatellite loci. Three methods were used to evaluate these populations for evidence of a historical bottleneck: M-ratio, mode-shift, and heterozygosity excess tests. Three mutation models were used for heterozygosity excess tests: the stepwise mutation model (SMM), two-phase model (TPM), and infinite allele model (IAM). M-ratio estimations indicated a potential bottleneck in both populations under some conditions. Although mode-shift tests did not strongly indicate a population bottleneck in the recent historical past when samples from all individuals were included, a female-only analysis indicated a potential bottleneck in TNP. Heterozygosity excess was indicated under two of the three mutation models (IAM and TPM), with TNP showing stronger evidence of heterozygosity excess than BMSR. Taken together, these results suggest that a bottleneck may have occurred among L. catta in southwestern Madagascar in the recent past. Given knowledge of how current major stochastic climatic events and human-induced change can negatively impact extant lemur populations, it is reasonable that comparable events in the historical past could have caused a population bottleneck. This evaluation additionally functions to highlight the continuing environmental and anthropogenic challenges faced by lemurs in southwestern Madagascar.

In this study, dominance rank instability among male Lemur catta during mating was investigated. Also, data on agonism and sexual behavior across five consecutive mating seasons in a population of L. catta on St. Catherines Island, USA, were collected. Instances of male rank instability were categorized into three types. Type 1 consisted of a temporary switch in the dominance ranks of two males, which lasted for a period of minutes or hours. Type 2 dyadic male agonistic interactions showed highly variable outcomes for a period of time during which wins and losses were neither predictable nor consistent. Type 3 interactions consisted of a single agonistic win by a lower-ranked male over a more dominant male. More Type 2 interactions (indicating greater dominance instability) occurred when males had not spent the previous mating season in the same group, but this trend was not statistically significant. The majority of periods of male rank instability were preceded by female proceptivity or receptivity directed to a lower-ranked male. As such, exhibition of female mate choice for a lower-ranking male appeared to incite male-male competition. Following receipt of female proceptivity or receptivity, males who were lower-ranking took significantly longer to achieve their first agonistic win over a more dominant male than did males who were higher-ranked. Ejaculation frequently preceded loss of dominance. In conclusion, temporary rank reversals and overall dominance rank instability commonly occur among male L. catta in mating contexts, and these temporary increases in dominance status appear to positively affect male mating success.