The complex nature of freshwater systems provides challenges for incorporating evidence-based techniques into management. This paper investigates the potential of participatory evidence-based techniques to involve local stakeholders and make decisions based on different "knowledge" sources within adaptive management programs. It focuses on the application of thresholds of potential concern (TPC) within strategic adaptive management (SAM) for facilitating inclusive decision-making. The study is based on the case of the Edward-Wakool (E-W) "Fish and Flows" SAM project in the Murray-Darling River Basin, Australia. We demonstrate the application of TPCs for improving collaborative decision-making within the E-W, associated with environmental watering requirements, and other natural resource management programs such as fish stocking. The development of TPCs in the E-W fish and flows SAM project helped improve stakeholder involvement and understanding of the system, and also the effectiveness of the implemented management interventions. TPCs ultimately helped inform environmental flow management activities. The TPC process complemented monitoring that was already occurring in the system and provided a mechanism for linking formal and informal knowledge to form explicit and measurable endpoints from objectives. The TPC process faced challenges due to the perceived reduction in scientific rigor within initial TPC development and use. However, TPCs must remain tangible to managers and other stakeholders, in order to aid in the implementation of adaptive management. Once accepted by stakeholders, over time TPCs should be reviewed and refined in order to increase their scientific rigor, as new information is generated.

Anthropogenic pressure on freshwater ecosystems is increasing, and often leading to unacceptable social-ecological outcomes. This is even more prevalent in intermittent river systems where many are already heavily modified, or human encroachment is increasing. Although adaptive management approaches have the potential to aid in providing the framework to consider the complexities of intermittent river systems and improve utility within the management of these systems, success has been variable. This paper looks at the application of an adaptive management pilot project within an environmental flows program in an intermittent stream (Tuppal Creek) in the Murray Darling Basin, Australia. The program focused on stakeholder involvement, participatory decision-making, and simple monitoring as the basis of an adaptive management approach. The approach found that by building trust and ownership through concentrating on inclusiveness and transparency, partnerships between government agencies and landholders were developed. This facilitated a willingness to accept greater risks and unintended consequences allowing implementation to occur.

Freshwater resource management is becoming increasingly complex as human pressure increases on available water resources, and as more participatory transparent decision-making frameworks are being advocated within water management. Complexity is further increased when environmental flow programs are integrated into existing water management programs. Adaptive management frameworks present an obvious choice for integration and implementation of environmental flows, but have so far failed to become the dominant framework. The research presented here highlights the ability of a strategic adaptive management (SAM) approach within an environmental flow program in the Murray Darling Basin of Australia to facilitate planning and implementation of environmental flows. The SAM approach did show that adaptive management can deal with the complexities of designing and implementing environmental flows within complex social-ecological systems, but can have limitations in the long-term. The approach highlighted the importance of social processes within adaptive management, emphasizing that a focus on inclusiveness, commitment, and transparency aimed at building understanding, trust, and ownership are key processes for implementation. In this specific case study, successful implementation was achieved through structured co-design of initial programs and participatory decision-making throughout. However, the SAM approach also showed that adaptive management is vulnerable to challenges in the long-term when resources and expertize change.