The head depths and head speeds of swimmers attained following the execution of racing starts during competition have not been well described. To address this, 211 competitive starts were filmed into a starting depth of 2.29 m with a block height of 0.76 m. Starts were stratified according to age, sex, stroke, and swim meet. Dependent measures were maximum depth of the center of the head, head speed at maximum head depth, and distance from the wall at maximum head depth. Significant main effects existed for age for all three measures: F(1, 106) = 13.33, p < .001, F(1, 106) = 18.60, p < .001 and F(1, 106) = 70.59, p < .001, respectively. There was a significant age by sex interaction, F(1, 106) = 5.36, p = 0.023, for head speed. In conclusion, older swimmers performed starts that were deeper and faster than younger swimmers and nearly all starts exceeded the threshold speeds for injury. As compared to starts previously reported into 1.22 m, starts were deeper, slower, and farther from the starting wall at maximum head depth.
Background: Despite evidence suggesting that lower-limb related factors may contribute to fall-risk in older adults, lower-limb and footwear influences on fall-risk have not been systematically summarized. This study was undertaken to systematically review the literature related to lower-limb and footwear factors that may increase fall-risk among community-dwelling older adults. To facilitate the transfer of findings to clinical care, the literature was synthesized and used to inform recommendations as well as the development of clinical pathways for each factor found to be an influence on fall risk.
Methods: PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and AgeLine were searched for articles pertaining to age-related changes in the lower-limb and their association with fall-risk. To describe the trajectory leading or potentially leading to increased fall-risk, we examined articles that linked age-related changes in the lower-limb, footwear and orthoses to evidence-based fall-risk factors (e.g., balance impairment) or prospectively demonstrated a relationship with falls.
Results: The systematic review consisted of 81 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Our results reflect a narrative review of the appraised literature for 8 pathways of lower-limb related influences on fall-risk in older adults. Six out of the eight pathways, including range of motion, orthoses, strength, footwear, pain, and deformity support a direct link with fall-risk. The two other pathways, including plantar skin/soft-tissue and sensory-loss, are connected via intermediate factors but lack studies that provide evidence of a direct link. The overall strength of the evidence available varied considerably for the 8 pathways presented.
Conclusions: Findings provide much needed guidance supporting the identification and management of lower-limb and footwear-related influences on fall risk among older adults. Due to the lack or low quality of the evidence in specific areas, some recommendations should be applied with caution until more robust evidence is available.
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